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I annotated naming for each of the five datasets. The following discussion explains the process I used for nouns, adjectives and determiners.

4.3.1.1 Nouns

I annotated each noun occurrence according to both the full noun phrase in which it occurs and the noun phrase in which it is head, with the detailed annotation of pre- and postmodification focusing on the latter, for example “traditional feminists” rather than “some especially restless demons that afflict traditional feminists” (Independent 01a). This reflects the fact that the annotation of full noun phrases would be complex and result in an annotation that would be difficult to analyse. Table 4.2 provides a snapshot of how I annotated naming in the noun datasets:

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Sentence/phrase Full phrase Phrase

[…] to turn the attacks on new feminists is totally misguided (Sun 01a)

new feminists new feminists

The march of the new feminists (Independent 09b)

the march of the new feminists the new feminists

But I think that there are some especially restless demons that afflict traditional feminists […] (Independent 01b)

some especially restless demons that afflict traditional feminists

traditional feminists

Table 4.2: Annotation of „feminist/s/ism‟-headed noun phrases

The focus on noun phrases in which „feminist/s/ism‟ is the head highlights one of the problems of annotating textual-conceptual functions in a large collection of data. If the intention is to focus on a particular word, then dealing with all noun phrases in their entirety may prove impractical. In this case, I decided to use a consistent approach to naming across the data that would maintain a strong focus on the object of study – „feminist/s/ism‟ - and the way it is packaged up in noun phrases.

The annotation of pre- and postmodification reflects the structuring of noun phrases: any premodifiers, followed by the head noun, and then any postmodification. The columns preceding the form column account for the different possibilities in the way a head noun can be premodified: predeterminers (for example „some of‟, „all of‟), determiners (e.g. „her‟, „Britain‟s‟), further predeterminers (e.g. „first‟, „three‟) and adjectives (e.g. „fellow‟, „crazy‟). I included quantifying collectives such as „generation of‟ and „bunch of‟ in the predeterminer column, as they perform a similar function to other forms noted by Biber et al. (1999, p. 248) such as „a number of‟ and „a couple of‟:

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The fringe of odd, demented, man-hating feminists

(Telegraph 01c)

The fringe of

odd demented man- hating feminists First-wave, capital-letter (Telegraph 05b) First- wave capital- letter feminists

One of Britain‟s first feminists (Sun 01a)

One of Britain‟s first feminists

Table 4.3: Annotation of premodification of „feminist/s/ism‟

I also categorised premodifying adjectives in order to gain a more detailed picture of the different ways in which „feminist/s/ism‟ is described. To do this, I used Biber et al.‟s (1999, pp. 508- 509) distinction between descriptors – adjectives that tend to be gradable, and that denote features like colour, age and size – and classifiers, which tend to be non-gradable and place referents into categories. This distinction is useful for looking at how the textual meaning of „feminist/s/ism‟ is constructed, and for testing previous studies‟ (Dean, 2010; Jarowska & Krishnamurthy, 2012; Mendes, 2012) claims that newspaper articles have a tendency to divide feminism into different varieties (see section 2.3). Biber et al. (1999) split descriptors and classifiers into smaller semantic groupings, reflecting the roles that different types of adjectives fulfil. Table 4.4 provides a summary of these groupings, with examples from the „feminist/s/ism‟ data:

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Size/quantity/extent Extreme, big, deep

Time Early, new, old

Evaluative/emotive Bad, better, phoney Miscellaneous/descriptive Lazy, bad, hairy-armed Classifiers

Relational/classificational/restrictive 21-st century, contemporary, second-wave Affiliative American, French, Muslim

Topical/other Lipstick, radical, pro-sex

(Adapted from Biber et al., 1999, pp. 508-509) Table 4.4: Semantic groupings of adjectives

This means of grouping adjectives is not perfect, for the reason that some adjectives defy simple categorisation. For example, an adjective such as „aggressive‟ clearly plays a describing, as opposed to a categorising, role, but it is difficult to determine whether it ought to be classified as a miscellaneous/descriptive descriptor or – considering its negative connotations – evaluative/emotive descriptor. Other adjectives – for example „militant‟, „radical‟, „traditional‟ – could be perceived as descriptors or classifiers: miscellaneous/descriptive descriptors that draw attention to a certain quality of the referent, or topical/other classifiers that reflect a particular subject area or the referent‟s relationship to a noun, e.g. „militancy‟, „radicalism‟ or „tradition‟. I categorised such occurrence as classifiers, due to the fact that attributive uses (those being looked at in this annotation) tend to carry a greater sense of classification than predicative uses, which note a particular aspect of the referent, for example in „the feminist is radical‟. The frequent occurrence of adjectives such as „militant‟, „radical‟ and „traditional‟ in the „feminist/s/ism‟ data further suggested that these are recognised types of feminist. These semantic groupings provide a means of gaining an impression of the ways in which „feminist/s/ism‟ is premodified – for example, demonstrating that particular noun forms frequently occur with adjectives relating to time or affiliation (see, for example, the analysis of adjectives that premodify „feminists‟ in section 6.3.3.3) – and further analysis in chapters 5-7 looks in greater detail at these classifications.

The annotation of post-modification captures postmodifying prepositional phrases and relative clauses in a single column:

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Phrase Form Postmodification

Liberal feminists such as Naomi Wolf (Telegraph 05a)

feminists such as Naomi Wolf

One of the pioneering feminists of our time (Mail 09a)

feminists of our time

Those feminists who are not satisfied with claiming equality with the other sex, but must be acknowledged as superior (Times 02a)

feminists who are not satisfied with claiming equality with the other sex, but must be acknowledged as superior

Table 4.5: Annotation of postmodification of „feminist/s/ism‟

The placing of postmodification in a single column reflects the fact that breaking some prepositional phrases and relative clauses down further into constituent parts would be arduous and produce an elaborate annotation.

The annotation of naming of nouns also accounts for apposition:

Sentence Form Apposition

And who better to open their eyes than specialists - feminists - who study this reality? (Times 03a)

feminists specialists

Whoever coined the phrase „post-feminism‟ should be shot (Independent 04c)

Post-feminism The phrase

Table 4.6: Annotation of appositive noun phrases and coordinates

Appositive noun phrases such as those in “feminists, these so-called 24-carat, ball-breaking, bovver- booted females” (Express 03a) have equivalent status, sharing the same referent (Biber et al., 1999, p. 638). Apposition is not included in Jeffries‟ (2010a) account of the textual-conceptual function of naming, which treats apposition as a linguistic realisation of the equating function. However, I include it in the annotation of naming as noun phrases used in apposition with „feminist/s/ism‟ - such as “these so-called 24-carat, ball-breaking, bovver-booted females” – provide further detail about the referent, packaging information up in the noun phrase in a similar way to other forms of pre- and postmodification.

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4.3.1.2 Adjectives

As with the annotation of nouns, the annotation of adjectives is based on the noun phrase, detailing the full phrase in which „feminist‟ occurs and the phrase in which a noun that is premodified by „feminist‟ is the head:

Full phrase Phrase

Feminist art (Guardian 07b) feminist art Julie Bindel, a feminist campaigner and journalist (Guardian

05c)

feminist campaigner and journalist

More of a need for feminist activism than ever (Guardian 09a) feminist activism

Table 4.7: Annotation of phrases containing adjectival „feminist‟

The annotation accounts for occurrences where „feminist‟ is a premodifier of a head noun – for example “feminist art” (Guardian 07b) - and occurrences where it acts as a clausal complement, e.g. “the movies were feminist” (Mail 08b). Where „feminist‟ is part of a complement, the full phrase and phrase columns detail the adjective phrase used, e.g. „feminist‟ or „anti-feminist‟. The head noun and subject columns annotate the elements described by premodifying and complement occurrences of „feminist‟:

Sentence Form Head noun Head noun Subject

Julie Bindel, a feminist campaigner and journalist, admitted being infuriated (Guardian 05c)

feminist campaigner journalist

This generation is truly post-feminist (Telegraph 01b)

post-feminist This generation

I‟m fat, lesbian and blatantly feminist (Sun 06b)

feminist I [Beth Ditto]

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Where the subject consists of just a pronoun – for example “I” in “I‟m fat, lesbian and blatantly feminist” (Sun 06b) - I used the original data files to provide detail about the referent in the subject column, e.g. “I [Beth Ditto]”:

Sentence Coordinate Coordinate Form Head noun Subject Lads, bras and other burning

feminist issues (Independent

00b)

burning feminist issues

I‟m fat, lesbian and blatantly feminist (Sun 06b)

fat lesbian feminist I [Beth Ditto]

Table 4.9: Annotation of adjectival coordinates of „feminist‟

This annotation ensures that the overview of complement occurrences of „feminist‟ provides the same level of detail to that of premodifier occurrences. Adjectives that coordinate with „feminist‟ are also annotated and categorised according to their semantic grouping (see discussion in section 4.3.1.1 above).

4.3.1.3 Determiners

As with the annotation of adjectives, the annotation of determiners accounts for the form of each occurrence (for example „feminism‟s‟, „feminists‟‟) and the (noun) phrase in which it occurs, for example “feminism‟s demise” (Mail 09b). The annotation focuses on the head noun being premodified by a determiner form of „feminism‟ or „feminist‟:

Form Phrase Head noun

Feminism‟s feminism‟s demise (Mail 09b) demise Feminists‟ the feminists‟ hate list (Times 03c) hate list Feminists‟ radical feminists‟ disapproval of a catalogue of explorations

(Independent 06b)

disapproval

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I did not record any further detail for determiners as they do not coordinate with other words of their class. The majority of the small number of occurrences (25) also carry little pre- or postmodification. Although a phrase like „the liberal feminism of the Sixties‟ attitude towards men‟ could hypothetically occur, modification of the majority of occurrences is limited to determiners and predeterminers, the one exception being “radical feminists‟ disapproval” (Independent 06b). Accordingly, the annotation focuses on who or what is described as belonging to „feminist/s/ism‟.