An essential ingredient for the development of any individual is the willingness to be developed (van Velsor et al., 2010; Avolio, 2011). In his studies of born vs. made, Avolio (2005) noted the requirements for having the potential for leadership are a propensity for moderate rule breaking and a challenging early childhood. Having the right background and genetics, according to Jackson and Parry (2008) is not sufficient foundation alone to become an effective leader. The willingness to learn and grow is essential for the skills, attributes and capability of leadership to be realized.
34 The importance of having the right attitude to learning is described very fully by Dweck (2006) in her book Mindset. She differentiates great leaders by those with a ‘fixed
mindset’ and those with a ‘growth mindset’, giving numerous case examples of each type, including Lee Iacocca of Chrysler (fixed mindset) and Jack Welch of GE (growth
mindset), and compares the fortunes of their organizations directly as a result of their leadership and mindset. Dweck (2006) very clearly emphasizes the importance of development in success and that the willingness and ability to develop is key to leadership effectiveness.
Change to leadership behaviours has been described, alongside technical development, as the two main drivers of leadership development at the present time. This section
demonstrates, therefore, that there are clear processes which can effect behaviour change. These processes are often most effective when enacted in a one-to-one relationship, such as with a professional coach (Skiffington and Zeus, 2003), and this supports the case to examine the coaching intervention so as to build a body of evidence around its execution. Two overall key theoretical positions; the psychological perspective and the situated learning perspective are described below with regard to the long-term internalization of change in individual high-potential professionals (Norcross and Newman, 1992; Hubble et al., 1999; Peltier, 2001).
An examination from the psychological perspective shows that change can be achieved using a number of intervention types and that this is effective in modifying behaviour on a long-term basis, though it concentrates very much on problem solving or remedial issues (Peltier, 2001).
The theory surrounding situated learning for the development of groups or individuals in organizations espouses a number of models which are mainly concerned with com- munities of practice or are at the organizational level (Rogers, 1961; Bandura, 1969,
35 1977; Hung, 1998; 1999). There is still little theory in this area to show how such
interventions enable change which is measurable and lasting to the individual participants.
In taking these two areas of theory it would seem that there is a potential gap in knowledge which can be explored. This gap raises questions as to whether the situated learning approach is adequate when working to develop high-potential individuals and whether elements of the psychodynamic approach should be combined with it to improve the effectiveness of behavioural or goal-centred long-term change. The potential for researching this gap in knowledge is supported by some of the apparent weaknesses of the two approaches when taken alone. The theory on situated learning focuses on the acquisition and improvement in technical skills within communities of practice. It looks at models of knowledge transfer within organizational settings and categorization of learning types (Kolb, 1984; Honey and Mumford, 1992) so as to identify standardized thresholds of skill or process. The theory on psychodynamic interventions is very persuasive when identifying the elements and processes which embed long-term change in the behaviour of individuals. However, this body of theory concentrates on remedial interventions performed by ‘therapists’ in a clinical or pseudo-clinical setting.
In this study, which focuses on developing the behaviours of individuals in the leadership arena, the objective is to determine a more effective method for how highly
individualized and self-determined development takes place (Deci and Ryan, 1995). The potential outcomes for each individual participant are likely to be specific to their existing skill set, personality characteristics and desired model of behaviour. Therefore this study is not concerned with categorization of performance outcomes; rather, it is concerned in general with the articulation of desired outcomes, the process of undertaking such change, and the examination of whether that change is achieved and observable over time.
36 In summary, when looking at a defined group of individuals in their organizational
settings, the bodies of theory which examine psychodynamic interventions and situated learning both, apparently, provide elements for long-term behavioural or goal-centred change. However, each deals with either sets of processes or groups of actors, which are not associated closely enough with the chosen group for this research.
2.3.2 Summary
From the evidence above there is an established body of theory on executive (adult) learning which covers the processes by which people learn in the organizational leader- ship setting. These theories and their relevance to this study are given in Table 2.2 below.
Theory Main authors Relevance to this study
Behaviourist theory Watson (1913), Watson and Rayner
(1920), Pavlov (1927), Skinner (1976)
Gives the fundament of human behaviour towards learning
Cognitive theory Piaget (1929), Vygotsky (1978,
1986)
Explores learning towards given objectives
Androgogy Knowles (1975) Recognizes adult learning as a
different paradigm from childhood development
Experiential learning Dewey (1938), Kolb and Fry
(1975), Kolb (1984)
Situates learning in a real world setting
Social learning theory
Bandura (1977) Sets out learning as a social activity
undertaken in a mutually beneficial environment
Learning styles Honey and Mumford (1982, 1992) Recognizes that each person has a
preferred learning style and that some forms of learning suit people more than others
Situated learning Bandura (1977), Reynolds et al.
(2002), Lave and Wenger (1991)
Looks at learning in the
organizational and group setting Transformative
learning
Mezirow (1996), Gray (2006) Learning with a tutor acting as a facilitator and the student
undertaking self-directed learning
Reflective learning Argyris (1960), Argyris and Schön
(1996)
Introduces the reflective process of learning and personal change
37 Some of these learning processes are group based, but many that are now gaining
credence are based on dyadic, experiential, relationship-based interventions. The theory and evidence for efficacy for some of these can be witnessed over a period of time, namely mentoring and psychological interventions.
However, coaching as a leadership development intervention is not supported by a body of peer reviewed academic research (Grant, 2003). The adoption of coaching, as with other interventions, appears to be driven as much by heuristics as by empirical support; there is a wealth of practitioner literature but little established theory (Mabey and Finch- Lees, 2008).
The next section will set out a summary of the relevant literature on leadership and leadership development, which is important for this research as it sets the context of the form of adult learning being investigated, namely Executive Coaching. The intervention is regularly used as a leadership development intervention, and its proliferation has been well documented (CIPD, 2011). Executive Coaching is widely used to enable leaders to build their skills base, develop greater self-awareness and to change behaviours so as to be more effective both personally and for the organizations for whom they work. It is, therefore, important to understand more about the current landscape of leadership, the emerging trends in desired leadership ability and the ways in which the necessary attributes are developed.
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