Following the constructivist theory, as learners grow up, they gain new ways allowing them to develop their level of understanding and represent their environment (Ultan, 2012). According to Bruner (1957), the learning outcomes are not only the concepts and problem solving, but should also include the capability to invent and develop new forms of their existing knowledge. Bruner claimed that the student’s level of understanding and their cognitive academic growth would be developed as an outcome of the interaction between human’s basic abilities and other factors, such as environment and technological tools that serve and reinforce constructivism. Bruner, in his research about the cognitive development of children (1966), stated that the goal of education is to create confident learners, and he proposed three modes of representation. Firstly, enactive representation (action-based). Secondly, iconic representation (image- based). Finally, symbolic representation (language-based).
Bruner's Modes of Representation
Bruner argued that the learner’s modes of representation should be defined using the way in which knowledge is stored and manipulated in the memory, unlike Piaget, who identified phases of development using age-related stages (GTCE, 2006).
Enactive mode (0 - 1 year): This mode of representation involves the
information that is based on the actions that will be stored in the memory; for example, babies can remember the voice of their mother and respond to it (McLeod, 2008).
Iconic mode (1 - 6 years): In this mode of representation, the knowledge will
be stored visually in the form of pictures, which is why for many students it is helpful to have some diagrams or visual aids for a new subject (Tomic & Kingma, 1996; McLeod, 2008).
Symbolic mode (7 years onwards): This is the last mode of representation where
the information will be stored in the form of symbols or codes, for instance, language, dealing with digital technology software and the skill of solving mathematical problems (Tomic & Kingma, 1996). This mode of representation consists of the previous modes (the Enactive and Iconic) as it combines the action and image. Bruner believed that human beings are active learners, can create the connections between images, actions and symbols so that they can build their knowledge. In other words, learners can reach the level of symbolic thinking.
For Bruner, the only way to develop symbolic thinking is by discovering and looking for knowledge instead of waiting for the teacher to introduce it. Bruner called this the concept of discovery learning, which is inquiry-based learning that takes place through problem-solving activities where learners use their own experience and current knowledge to discover new concepts and relationships. Hence, learners can build their knowledge (Clabaugh, 2010).
Bruner’s constructivist theory proposed the idea of constructivism by the progression or the transition from the enactive to iconic and finally to symbolic modes of representation. According to Bruner, these modes of representation apply to all learners (GTCE, 2006).
Bruner asserted that the learner in general, and the very young learner and adults in particular, could learn any material since the content was organised and clear instructions were provided (Bruner, 1960; Cherry, 2004). Bruner applied his theory to the creation of the Spiral curriculum, which has three levels. At level one, the material must be introduced with straightforward ideas to learners. At level two, the content must be reviewed with additional ideas about the taught topic; and eventually, at level three, the material must be introduced to learners at a range of levels of complexities (Cherry, 2004; McLeod, 2008). These ideas were evident in Bruner’s published article, The Process of Education, in which he emphasised that students are active learners, capable of building their knowledge and learning any new material (Bruner, 1960). Bruner’s ideas form a very sharp contrast to the ideas that were suggested by Piaget since Piaget claimed that students must be taught the new content only when the teacher thinks that the student has reached the required level of maturity based on the age-related stages (Pulaski, 1980; McLeod, 2008).
learning and in developing their skills. This process of aiding the learner is called scaffolding and is regarded as a part of social constructivism. Wood, Bruner and Ross use this term to describe how tutors interacted with children to help them to solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood, et al., 1976). Faryadi (2007) claimed that the concept of scaffolding identifies the importance of providing students with sufficient support in the initial stages of learning a new subject. Wood et al. (1976, p. 90) asserted that the scaffolding process "enables a child or novice to solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts".
The role of social context in individual development has been attributed to those such as Vygotsky where a more experienced other play a ‘scaffolding’ role in supporting someone less experienced. (Jessel, 2014, p. 913)
Scaffolding ensures that students are not left on their own to understand the new content. For instance, to have a student capable of solving the mathematical problems, this student must observe his/her teacher or a small group of students working through the task step by step. Hence, the student should be able to attempt it on his own, i.e., I do you do. The supports or the scaffold will be removed when a student is ready, like the scaffold, which is used in the construction of a building, will be removed when the building is completed and can stand on its own (McLeod, 2018). Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6 show a summary of the main ideas of Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky.
Note: Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6are based on Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner’s perspectives of the constructivist theory.
Common areas between Piaget and Bruner
Conflict areas between Piaget and Bruner
Children, by nature, are curious, adapted to learn,
and active learners can build their knowledge.
Development is a continuous process (Bruner) not a series of age-related stages (Piaget).
Child’s cognitive level will be developed until they become capable of dealing
with the symbols.
According to Piaget, students must be taught the new material when the teacher thinks that the student has
reached the required level of maturity (age-related), unlike Bruner’s suggestion that any student at any age is capable of learning any topic. “Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child
at any stage of development”. (Bruner, 1960, p. 33).
Piaget Vygotsky The idea of constructivism built on
assimilation, accommodation and organisation.
The idea of constructivism relies on scaffolding and social interactions.
The student is an active learner who can build his/her knowledge alone. Not necessary
to have scaffolding and social interactions.
The student is an active learner but needs scaffolding and social
interactions. The teacher must provide a suitable
environment and encourage students to move forward.
The teacher needs to manage social activities and provide scaffolding for
students when it is needed.
Table 5. Comparisons between Piaget and Vygotsky.
Common areas between Vygotsky and Bruner Conflict areas between Vygotsky and Bruner
Children learn effectively through social activities. Learners cannot gain knowledge independently (100%). Vygotsky and Bruner discovered that effective learning takes place through social interaction. “Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a child's environment, especially the social environment, more than
Piaget did” (McLeod, 2008).
No significant difference between Vygotsky and Bruner, but Bruner believed that students learn better when they learn independently and
receive a little support (scaffold) when they need it. On the other hand, Vygotsky feels that learners
need continuing support. Children’s cognitive level will be developed by
supporting them when they need.
Table 6. Common and Conflict areas between Vygotsky and Bruner.