These civil wars against the state are the ones in which the rebels aim at state dominance of some identity group (Clark 2002, Zartman 1996, Brown 1996, Gurr 1970 and 2000, Joseph 1999, Rupesinghe 1992 and 1998, and William 2003). In Sub-Saharan Africa, this type of civil war include the civil wars in Rwanda between 1990-1993, Somalia in the 1990s, Liberia in the 1990s, Congo-Brazzaville in the 1990s, and Angola since 1975 among others. In this case, the people who oppose the state or state policies feel marginalized, or left out. Such wars have contributed to the collapse of countries such as Somalia, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Liberia (Clark 2002, Mkandawire 1999, and Herbst 2000). Ironically, control of the state is still much sought after and valued, as the experiences from wars in countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Kenya, Zimbabwe, and now Côte d’Ivoire suggest (Bøas and Dunn 2007: 26).
It should be also emphasized that the groups that feel marginalized by the state are sometime regionally, ethnically, or religion based (more so in Sub-Saharan Africa). To be sure, in 2000, ethnic violence erupted in Nigeria when Muslims leaders attempted to impose the Shari’a (or Islamic law) on the Christians living in the north. In fact, between 2000 and 2005 more than 54,000 people were killed in conflict between Muslims and Christians (Payne and Nassar 2006: 283)
In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the crises opposed numerous ethnic groups, many of which were supported by foreign governments. For example, Uganda supported the ethnic groups that fought against Kabila, ethnic rivalries in Rwanda and Burundi spilled over into the Congo, the governments in Rwanda and Burundi were
involved in the Congo crisis because the ethnic groups that threaten their stability operated from the Congo, and participated in the Congo war (Payne and Nassar 2006: 277-278).
In Liberia, the Americo-Liberians dominated the other ethnic groups (the Kpelle 20%, Bassa14%, Gio 9%, Mano 7%, and Krahn 5%) until 1980. When the Americo- Liberian president, William Tolbert, was overthrown and murdered by a group of soldiers led by Samuel K. Doe, from the Krahn group. Once in power, Doe also allowed the Krahn to dominate the country, just as his predecessor did. The Krahn were soon challenged by an alliance composed of Gio and Mano groups. In late 1990, Doe was captured and tortured to death by Prince Johnson and members of the Gio group. More than 150,000 people (out of a population of 3 million) were killed, 800,000 became refugees in neighboring countries and in Liberia itself (Payne and Nassar 2006: 284-285).
In 1983, the Muslim government in the Sudanese capital, Khartoum, declared that the entire country of Sudan would be ruled by Shari’a (Islamic law) as in Nigeria. The Christians and Animists in the southern part of Sudan strongly resisted Islamic rule by forming the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) to achieve a secular democratic Sudan. If that could not be done, their goal was to make the south an independent country. To punish them, the government prevented food supplies from reaching the starving people in the south, and also bombed international relief centers.
A similar situation was observed in Rwanda where the Hutu majority was given control of the country by the Belgians at independence in 1962. Ethnic rivalries escalated in 1990 between the Hutu majority and Tutsi minority, when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) tried to challenge the power structure. Note that the RPF was a guerrilla army that
defended the cause of the Tutsi minority. Moderate Hutus agreed to share power with the Tutsis in 1993. On April 6, 1994, violence erupted after the presidential airplane crushed for some unknown reasons to this date. The killing intensified thereafter, leading to chaos and destruction (Payne and Nassar 2006: 287).
China has also taken extreme measures and precautions against the minorities that live in regions that contain a large proportion of the country’s natural resources (such as oil, coal, copper, gold, iron, lumber, and water) to insure that ethnic groups do not
threaten the country’s unity and stability. China purposely stationed 1 million troops in its western province of Xinjiang to suppress Uighur separatists, who are Muslims and
suspected allies of foreign Islamic extremists. The Uighurs’ goal of independence is strongly resisted by China. In the past, the Uighurs have attacked oil refineries, railroads, bridges, and planted bombs on buses, which killed several people. They also killed 16 Chinese police officers in 1997, and have engaged in numerous hit-and-run raids on Chinese institutions. In response, more than 1,000 Uighurs were executed, and about 10,000 arrested. Payne and Nassar 2006: 291)
In Sri Lanka, the most significant ethnic division involves the Sinhalese (74% of the population and Buddhists), and the Tamils (22% of the population and Hindus). The rest of the population consists of Moors, Europeans, and native people of Sri Lanka known as Veddah. In 1994, President Kumaratunga made a concession to Tamils rebels by offering them regional autonomy in a federal system of government. However, the Sinhalese feared that federalism would eventually lead to creating a separate country for Tamils on the island nation. In February 2002, the government was forced to sign a cease-fire with the Tamils rebel leader, Velupillai Prabhakaran (Payne and Nassar 2006:
294). Velupillai Prabhakaran was killed in the summer of 2009, after a fierce battle between the Sri-Lankan Army and the separatist movement.
Between 1997 and 1999, ethnic violence spread across the world largest Muslim country, Indonesia. Indonesia has 90 % Muslims, 9 % Christian, while Hindus and Buddhists account for the remaining 1%. Ethnic Chinese, who constitute a significant minority group (5% mostly Christian) in much of Southeast Asia, are the main targets of ethnic violence in Indonesia. The economic crisis that occurred between 1997 and 1999 sparked widespread violence against ethnic Chinese. Their homes, churches, and shops were looted and burned. More than a thousand people were killed (Payne and Nassar 2006: 295).
East Timorese, who are overwhelmingly Catholic, resisted occupation by Muslim Indonesia. An estimated 200,000 East Timorese (25 %) died as a result of Indonesian military action, starvation, and disease. Under external pressure, mainly from the UN, President Habibie decided to allow East Timorese to vote on independence for East Timor. However, militia groups in East Timor that favored maintaining close ties with Indonesia began to acquire weapons to intimidate those who supported this idea. After the referendum, militia groups took the streets and indiscriminately killed thousands of East Timorese. Priests, nuns, and other associated with the Roman Catholic Church were systematically hunted down and killed. More than 200,000 people became refugees. East Timor eventually became independence in 2002.
In Côte d’Ivoire, the civil war that started in September 2002 first opposed northerners and Muslims to the state, but this was modified as two ethnically dominated rebel groups from the west joined in. Thus, it became a war western and northern
Ivoirians against the state. In other words, it was war of Dyula, Yacouba, and Guere against President Gbagbo’s regime.