Proyectos y tendencias actuales

How does one gain insight into and understanding of a phenomenon as intangible and complex as the culture of an organisation? The task of culture research is a difficult and demanding one. As Morgan ( 1 986) observes:

Our understanding of culture is usually much more fragmented and superficial than the reality (Morgan, 1 986: 1 39).

Culture is experienced and expressed in a variety of ways by the people who create and maintain it. Although complex and elusive, its manifestations can be identified and described, categorised in a range of theoretical models constructed by researchers.

Beare, Caldwell & Milliken ( 1 99 1 ) divide cultural manifestations into two basic categories (Figure 1 ). Intangible features, such as values, philosophy and ideology originate from inner space of people's lives, that is, within human nature, experience, memory and emotion. Tangible features, such as verbalised, behavioural and visual expressions, are categorised as arising from the outer space of human experience. These categories are similar to those of Trompenaars ( 1 994) who groups features according to their implicit and explicit nature. He notes that no clear boundaries exist between cultural manifestations, however they might be categorised. They are forever in dynamic relationship. In other words, intangible features are the foundation for the tangible. The rich tradition of the Catholic Church provides many examples of the flow between both categories. The Catholic Christian concept of 'sacrament' illustrates the power of symbol, story and ritual as expressions of spiritual belief about reality and God. Described as "real, symbolic encounters" (Komonchah, 1 990:920), they are ritual events, rich in their use of symbol and story, which celebrate key aspects of human life, such as relationship, service, birth, sickness and community. Catholics believe that they are complex signs of God' s presence with human beings, bringing about in reality what they signify.

The complex intangible influence of ideas, assumptions, beliefs and values creates a conceptual and philosophical foundation that determines the nature of behaviour and shapes the tangible expressions of culture (Milliken, 1 984; Schein, 1 992; Trice & Beyer, 1 993 ; Trompenaars, 1 994). This corresponds to Schein's ( 1 992) second level of culture, that is, the level of espoused values. According to Milliken ( 1 984), conceptual and philosophical elements include values, philosophy, ideology, aims and objectives, metaphors, myths,

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sagas and traditions. However, Schein ( 1 992) and Trompenaars ( 1 993) argue the existence of an even deeper level of culture; that of basic assumptions. These are the unconscious thoughts, perceptions and feelings of persons that are strong motivators for action. They constitute an underlying framework for explicitly articulated values and beliefs, shared and communicated through the ceremonies, rituals, structures, and behavioural nonns of the group. They are manifested in the tangible expressions of the culture.

To understand a culture, its values, philosophy and ideology need to be explored. The Special Character of the Catholic school is grounded in the authentic union of cultural reality and philosophical vision, experienced and expressed in a manner distinctive to each school. By implication, then, an understanding of the nature of the educational culture of the Catholic school requires a thorough knowledge and understanding of Catholic educational philosophy, ideology and values; in short, the Catholic vision of education.

Values and culture

Values are the basic 'building blocks' of culture. Identifying shared values is important for understanding the unique character of an organisation such as a school (Beare, Caldwell &

Milliken, 1 99 1 ; Hoy & Miskel, 1 99 1 ; Schein, 1 992; Bush, 1 995). Beare, Caldwell &

Milliken ( 1 99 1 ) seem to rej oice in their conclusion that:

We have finally acknowledged publicly that uniqueness is a virtue, that values are important and that they should be fostered and taken into account in any analysis of an organisation's purpose or performance (Beare, Caldwell & M i lliken, 1 99 1 : 1 73).

As the organisation interacts with 'outsiders', external influences will impact on the shared values of the group (Bush, 1 995). In fact, Bush ( 1 995) maintains that:

The external environment may be regarded as the source of many of the values and bel iefs that coalesce to form the culture of the school or college (Bush, 1 995 : 1 3 5).

In other words, the values of families, church, local community and ethnic groups represented within the school, together with those implicit in Ministry of Education and Government policy, add diversity and flavour to the mix of school values, creating a school culture unlike any other. However, each member of the organisation also brings a personal

value system, developed over a lifetime, into her or his relations with others. When a system of values is shared and is in harmony with the stated mission or vision of the organisation, the common ground provides criteria for j udging priorities. It generates a sense of unity; creates a unique organisational identity; and determines the strength of the school 's Special Character. Core values, the deepest and most strongly held, focus action and "help to determine the vision for the school or college" (Bush, 1 995 : 1 35) for students and teachers, departments, and members of the local community.

Values are guidelines for behaviour. They are the criteria against which we evaluate (and reflect upon) our actions, either proposed or taken, and on the attitudes and behaviours of others (Beare, Caldwel l & Milliken, 1 99 1 : 1 80).

Values function at three different levels within individuals and groups (Milliken, 1 984; Beare, Caldwell & Milliken, 1 99 1 ; Dalin & Rolff, 1 993). Hodgkinson' s ( 1 978 & 1 983) models of the hierarchy of values propose that values exist at a Transrational level; that is, at the level of conviction, principle, ethics and morality, requiring personal commitment and faith and strongly defended by the individual. The Rational level of values is manifest within the context of the group in the shape of norms, customs and expectations. Values at this level can be reasoned, justified and supported. The third level is the Subrational; values based on personal preference and feeling. They have an emotional base, are basic and are expressed behaviourally. People constantly move between all three levels, in a complex dynamic manner. The higher the level, the more powerful is the influence, according to Beare, Caldwell & Milliken ( 1 99 1 ). Leaders need to be aware of these levels of values. The significance of a value determines the personal reaction and behaviour of an individual, since "in assigning values, we make judgements about the worth of things from our peculiar perspective" (Beare, Caldwell & Milliken, 1 99 1 : 1 8 1 ). Given that no one can

assume to know the values out of a person may be acting, good communication and

cautious interpretation are vital to maintain a healthy culture. The leader who is unaware that people function from their own unique perspective is heading for disaster!

Assumptions

Whilst acknowledging the influence of values in determining behaviour and cultural identity, Schein ( 1 992) proposes the existence of a deeper and ultimately more significant

level of culture, that of basic underlying assumptions. These take the form of unconscious beliefs, thoughts, feelings and perceptions (Figure 2).

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(Reproduced from Schein, 1 992: 1 7) . Visible organizational structures and processes

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Strategies, goals, philosophies ( espoused justifications)

Unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings (ultimate source of values and action)

Schein ( 1 992) identifies six elements of human experience that are foci for deep personal assumptions.

1. The nature of reality and truth: what is real and what is not; what is authentic and what is not. Schein suggests three levels of reality: external physical reality that can be scientifically tested; the social reality that is the agreed communal experience of relationships and identity; and the individual reality which constitutes an individuals experience of life and learning. Truth can be understood as dogma; truth arrived at through rational process or pragmatism; and truth as determined by scientific processes.

2. _{The nature of time: concepts about how it should be defined or measured. For}

example, questions are raised about what constitutes 'quick' or 'soon', how time should be used, and the importance of time.

3. _{The nature of space: how it} IS symbolised; its significance for each person; its

relevance.

4. _{The nature of human nature: concepts about goodness, evil, perfection; the}

significance of areas of life such as family, friendship, commitment, personal worth and character.

5. _{The nature of human activity: what is right or wrong for human persons; the} importance of work and leisure; and basic personal orientation in relation to action.

6. _{The nature of human relationships: whether or not people should co-operate,}

negotiate, compete, respect authority or challenge it; how conflict should be resolved; and how people should express love or use power.

According to Schein ( 1 992), these assumptions are highly complex, and deeply personal. They may develop out of a person' s national culture, their basic human personality and personal history, but whatever their source, basic assumptions are fundamental to a person's view of life. They determine the meaning that each person in an organisation assigns to the symbols, norms and values of the whole group. Schein ( 1 992) suggests that assumptions are often at the heart of group and interpersonal conflict. Conversely, when shared by others, they also have the power to unite the members of the organisation in strong cultural bonds.

The relationship of these basic underlying assumptions with the values of the group is such that:

If the espoused values are reasonably congruent with the underlying assumptions, then the articulation of those values into a phi losophy of operating can be helpful in bringing the group together, serving as a source of identity and core mission (Schein, 1 992:22).

There is a link, therefore, between values, philosophy and the culture of the group

(Milliken, 1 984; Beare, Caldwell & Milliken, 1 99 1 ; Trice & Beyer, 1 993).

With ideology and philosophy, they (values) constitute the developmental base of our social culture: the common shared and agreed-upon values, philosophies and behaviours (Mill iken, 1 984:69).

Values, usually the deepest and most significant, are articulated through a philosophy (Dalin & Rolff 1 993) giving rise to specific ideas, thoughts and a corresponding ideology. Goals and their practical outcomes are the concrete expression and experience of an integration of values, philosophy and ideology. A school with deep, communal values, a sound philosophy and relevant ideology will be gifted with a clear vision and sense of purpose. The achievement of its goals is more likely, then, to be realised. This ideal state of coherence is reflected in literature on Catholic education in its presentation of a vision of the Catholic school as, not only educating the young, but bringing them and their families closer to a sincere committed relationship with God, community and the world.

Expressions of culture

If "culture is a unique and distinct way of life" (Milliken, 1 984:67), then expressions of culture will be as diverse and unique as the organisations themselves. However, patterns of behaviour, language and symbol can be identified, providing insight into the deep values and assumptions that motivate and energise the people in an organisation. Trice & Beyer ( 1 993) argue the existence of ' cultural forms' , grouped into the four categories of symbols, language, narrative and practices. These "consist of observable entities people use to express, affirm and communicate the substance of their cultures" (Trice & Beyer, 1 993 : 1 28). Edgar Schein ( 1 992) uses the term 'artefacts', to describe the symbols, objects, language, structures and processes that provide meaning for the group. Artefacts are deceptive in their revelation of culture. They are easy to see, but difficult to understand, since they may carry in them a wide range of possible meanings for those who experience them. Owens ( 1 99 1 ) speaks of 'symbolic elements' which "interweave to create meaning and commitment" (Owens, 1 99 1 :22). However, the most comprehensive patterning of cultural expressions in the context of schooling is that of Beare, Caldwell & Milliken ( 1 99 1 ).

Categorising tangible expressIOns of cultural life under the three headings of Conceptual/verbal manifestations; VisuallMateriel and symbolism; and Behavioural manifestations, Beare, Caldwell & Milliken ( 1 99 1 ) provide a detailed, all-encompassing

and interrelated range of experiences and practices that reflect the daily reality of the school. None of these expressions exists in isolation from the others. All reflect some aspect of the value and meaning of school life for the group and the individual. Indeed, all elements work together in a dynamic and complex way.

School culture is very much a 'gestalt' of countervailing forces, and multiple artefacts, rather than a predominance of a single focus or metaphor (Milliken, 1 984: 7 1 ).

The ideal of Catholic education, as articulated in church documents, is the creation of a harmonious union of the cultural manifestations of both school and church, bringing about a symphony of cultural experience. In this way, the integration of culture, faith and life in the life of each student becomes a possibility, so that he or she might then become the fully formed person that God intended; a person living with integrity. In any human endeavour, reality inevitably falls short of the ideal, but as each Catholic school strives for excellence in terms of its Special Character, it may find guidance through a consideration of the nature of its tangible and intangible cultural expressions of its Catholic identity.

The significance of culture for schools

Beare, Caldwell & Milliken describe schools as "powerfully cultural places" (Beare, Caldwell & Milliken, 1 99 1 : 1 79) that have a profound direct effect on the lives of students and their families. As such, it is important that school leaders and teachers consider the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour that constitute the lived reality of the school' s culture. Dalin & Rolff ( 1 993) note that the power o f culture i s such that "For the school to change in the way its functions, it has to change its culture" (Dalin & Rolff, 1 993 :96). A lack of cultural awareness and understanding of the dynamics of culture, therefore, limits the school's ability to bring about change. Effective change cannot be brought about through structural means alone. Culture runs so deep in the lives and actions of people, that

it:

Must be at the centre of all administrative efforts if we hope to continuously improve organisational effectiveness (Cunningham & Gresso, 1 993 :33).

In short, change requires the positive co-operation of people and the building of mutual trust amongst them.

A shared understanding of cultural identity can empower the school.

The energy and spirit of the organisation, as well as its perfonnance, is born out of culture (Cunningham & Gresso, 1 993 :34).

Since culture develops out of the discovery of solutions to external and internal demands

(Owens, 1 99 1 ; Trice & Beyer, 1 993 ; Bush, 1 995); it carries within it the potential for

innovation and creative living, inspiring confidence in the future. As members adopt successful behaviours from the past and discover new ones, they are more able to discern the structures, actions and processes that best ' fit' the character of their school. Consequently, they are more prepared to engage their energies in ensuring that these are implemented. This sense of common purpose generates common commitment and effort.

Culture provides members with a sense of personal and collective identity (Owens, 1 99 1 ; Deal, 1 993 ; Trice & Beyer, 1 993). Schools are very complex and diverse places by their nature, but socialisation into a culture enables members to find their place and to perceive what is expected of them. It helps them to recognise what they offer the school and what the school offers them in return. People are encouraged to own what is happening in the school; their school. They have a clearer sense of what it means to be 'teacher' , 'student' and 'principal' . Expectations, appropriate behaviour and attitudes are communicated through cultural norms; enabling members to more easily recognise their place in the ' scheme of things' . Culture enables them to find meaning through their interrelationships and interactions as together, they generate the activity, purpose and vision of the school. Knowing 'what goes' provides a sense of security, stability and confidence.

Loyalty and commitment amongst staff is stimulated by a positive culture. As teachers work together with a strong sense of team and collegiality, they are more able to focus on and commit to common goals (Owens, 1 99 1 ; Bush, 1 995). Culture:

Gives rise to teachers' willingness not only to follow the rules and nonns governing their behaviour in the organisation, but more than that, to accept the ideals of the organisation as their own personal values and, therefore, to work energetically to achieve the espoused goals of the organisation (Owens, 1 99 1 :28).

School leaders, as cultural leaders, can count on the support and co-operation of teaching

staff, as _{they work together with a shared understanding of the organisation's unique}

character and mission (Schein 1 992). The creation of strong bonds amongst the members of the organisation stimulates a desire to face problems together; to search for understanding of issues; and to discern appropriate action. A stable culture, one in which there is a strong sense of mutuality, is more ready to confront ambiguities between what is espoused and the reality of day-to-day living. When values are explicit and shared, conflicts can be resolved, misinterpretations can be avoided, energies can be more effectively focused, and schools are more likely to succeed in their task of teaching and

learning. Beare, Caldwell & Milliken ( 1 99 1 ) exhort schools to take seriously the cultural

elements they create and maintain:

Because as organisations they espouse, either directly or indirectly, a composite of values, phi losophy and ideology which purports to educate intellectually, socially and skilfully the children who place their faith and their futures in the school's care and nurture (Beare,

Caldwell & Milliken, 1 99 1 : 1 79).

An awesome responsibility!

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