4. Resultados
4.3. Pruebas de Cointegración en los Residuos Estimados
Both types of figurine examined in this paper raise interesting questions about
“authenticity.” The Gudza dolls (Section 1) appear to be genuine tribal objects, but the lack of documentation in the ethnographic and anthropological literature leaves open the possibility that they are a recent development, and possibly an innovation – or a
borrowing from southern Africa – made with the primary intention of sale to Westerners.396,397 One might then expect them to be visible in travellers’ online
photographs of Turkana and Samburu artifacts laid out for sale, which they do not seem to be. In 1990, Esther Dagan observed that “in Kenya, beautiful dolls of various types can be found mainly in the markets of Nairobi and Mombasa (Map 2). They are bought by local women as toys or by tourists as souvenirs.”398At worst, one can imagine a scenario where all of the Gudza figurines are the work of a single artisan resident in one or other city who supplies its tourist-oriented galleries with dolls based on an archetype
indigenous to southern Africa.399 However, the crowning of the figurines’ heads with powdered red ochre (which readily rubs off during transport) and their subsequent unsightly anointment with white pigment argue against their creation solely as tourist souvenirs.
Even if the Gudza dolls do prove mainly to be trade items, we should remember that, in Africa, “the distinction between authentic and commercial or old and new dolls is blurred and complex.”400 In the words of Dora Ross, “Rigid oppositions of real/fake, traditional/modern, and old/new are as problematic as the distinction between a doll and a ritual object in Africa. […] On some of these issues, academic opinion is out of step with popular belief. […] Regrettably, academia […] all too often passes on the narrow and distant traditions while the believers pass on the larger and more diverse traditions. And the newest traditions.”401 In the complex and highly dynamic cultural environment of Africa, we find that dolls made for sale to tourists can still enjoy ritual use in their countries of origin,402 and that even mass-produced Western dolls can be incorporated into ritual practice;403 in other cases, we can find that time has altered the perception and use of indigenous ritual statuary so that “the outward form has survived whilst the original meaning has been forgotten – a familiar process in the evolution of material culture.”404
Irrespective of an African artisan’s motivation for making a traditional doll, their knowledge of the design and skill in executing it – or flair in adapting it, in the case of some “re-created dolls” bound for the marketplace – can result in a cultural artifact that inspires and enchants the viewer, whether fellow citizen or foreign connoisseur.405 Whatever the reason for their creation, the Gudza dolls still conform exquisitely to a “gender paradox” template that has resurfaced time and again since the Paleolithic era and is manifest in the fertility dolls innate to a number of African tribal cultures. Their phallo-feminine chic is a timeless visual pun of deep mythic significance that here has been executed with grace and style.
The Beta Israel statuary (Section 2) raises even more complex issues. Clearly these artifacts are not authentically Neolithic, in that they are less than 60 years old, nor are
55
they authentically African, insofar as at least the bird-headed maternity figurine was almost certainly crafted in Israel. While the “neo-Neolithic” style of pottery was never an innate expression of Beta Israel, Agaw, Ethiopian or African culture, some of the
resulting pieces do have an undeniable cachet as works of art. One can either marvel at the un-selfconscious resurrection of ancient motifs and “channelling” of a Neolithic mind-set in this new and unexpected context, or view the pieces as cautionary examples of just how easy it is to see signs of the Neolithic goddess in the features and decoration of any “primitive” pottery figurine, no matter when, where or why it was made.
© Lloyd D. Graham, 2013: Text (excluding quotations), Figs. 1.2-1.5, 1.7, 1.18-1.20, 2.6, 2.10, 2.13-2.14, & graphic abstract. v07_25.11.16.
Throughout the main text, endnotes that merely provide bibliographic details are given by black superscript numerals, while those that include additional information or qualifying comments are given by dark red
superscript numerals.
Keywords: Gudza, African fertility doll, terracotta figurine, East African sculpture, phallic Goddess, phallic female, Amlash, Schroda, bird goddess, Astarte figurine, Samburu, Turkana, Lemba, Venda, domba, mwana, milayo, nungu, Bantu expansion, lost tribes of Israel, Beta Israel, Falasha, Qemant, Wolleka, Wollaqa, Tudor Parfitt, Marija Gimbutas, color symbolism, Jungian theory, psi figurine, Baba Yaga, neo- Neolithic, tribal authenticity, gender studies, thealogy, Swyer Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome, soapstone birds
Cite as: Lloyd D. Graham (2013) “Terracotta fertility figurines of prehistoric Eurasian design from modern East Africa,” online at
http://www.academia.edu/4685518/Terracotta_fertility_figurines_of_prehistoric_Eurasian_design_from_m
odern_East_Africa
1 In this paper, East Africa will be used to denote not just the sub-region defined by the United Nations but
to include the eastern part of South Africa as well.
2 As there is no single adjective that encapsulates the cultural activities of anatomically modern humans up
to (approximately) the BCE/CE divide, the term “prehistoric” is used in this paper to fulfil this purpose. In this broader sense, “prehistoric” does not exclude the time periods corresponding to the European and Near Eastern Bronze and Iron Ages, even though these periods do not predate written records.
3 Gerald W. Hartwig (1978) “Sculpture in East Africa,” African Arts 11 (4), 62-65.
4 Yvonne Winters (1998) “Mpondo – Did the Mpondo people have dumbbell-shaped dolls? In: Evocations
of the Child: Fertility Figures of the Southern African Region, Johannesburg Art Gallery/Human & Rousseau, Cape Town, p.193-205.
5 Veliswa Gwintsa (1998) “Double talk – Problems of translation, interviewing and secrecy,” In:
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6 Jean-Marie Dederen (2010) “Women’s power, 1000 A.D.: Figurine art and gender politics in prehistoric
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7 Elisabeth L. Cameron (1996) “Playing with dolls,” In: Isn't S/He a Doll: Play and Ritual in African
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8 Gillian M. Morriss-Kay (2010) “The evolution of human artistic creativity,” Journal of Anatomy 216,
56
9 Randy P. Conner (2003) “Sexuality and gender in African spiritual traditions,” In: Sexuality and the
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11 For a recent paper with new finds from this species at the same site, see Meave G. Leakey, Fred Spoor,
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16 Marija Gimbutas (1999), The Living Goddesses, University of California Press, Berkeley, p.3.
17 Arrows depicting the Bantu expansion are adapted from an image by Mark Dingemanse, released under
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18 Charles M. Nelson (2008) “Notes on the Jarigole Pillar site,” accessed 21 Sep, 2013, photos online at
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19 Stanley Ambrose (2001) “East African Neolithic” Encyclopedia of Prehistory, vol. 1 (Africa) Peter N.
Peregrine & Melvin Ember (eds.), Springer, p.97-109, at p.100.
20 Nigel Pavitt (1997) Turkana: Kenya's Nomads of the Jade Sea, Harville/Harper Collins, London, p.11-13. 21 Nigel Pavitt (1991/2006) Samburu, Kyle Cathie, London, p.14
22 Rough Guides, “Samburu-Land,” accessed 21 Sep, 2013, online at
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23 Pavitt, Samburu, p.13; also Africa Imports, “The Samburu,” accessed 21 Sep, 2013, online at
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24 Pavitt, Samburu, p.204-205.
25 From the documentary Umoja, le village interdit aux hommes. Accessed 1 Oct, 2013, image online at
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Femme_Samburu_%C3%A0_la_Rose.jpg
26 Accessed 1 Oct, 2013, image online at
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_woman_wearing_traditional_tribal_beads_in_Turkana,_K
enya,_October_2012_(8405274783).jpg
27 Pavitt, Samburu, p.197.
28 Pavitt, Samburu, p.70, 99-100, 164 & 174. 29 Pavitt, Samburu.
30 Pavitt, Samburu, p.163-194.
31 Africa Imports, “The Samburu,” online at http://africaimports.com/samburu-people-group.asp, accessed
21 Sep, 2013.
32 Pavitt, Samburu, p.41 33 Pavitt, Turkana.
34 John Lamphear (1988) “The people of the grey bull: The origin and expansion of the Turkana,” Journal
of African History 29 (1), 27–39.
35 Pavitt, Turkana, p.42.
36 Anthony Barrett (1998) Sacrifice and Prophecy in Turkana Cosmology, Paulines Publications Africa,
Nairobi.
37 Pavitt, Turkana, p.111; also Jens Finke (2000-2003), “Turkana – Society,” accessed 21 Sep, 2013, online
at http://www.bluegecko.org/kenya/tribes/turkana/society.htm
38 Pavitt, Samburu, p.14
39 E.D. Emley (1927) “The Turkana of Kolosia District,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of
57
40 David McKenzie & Lillian Leposo (2012), “Police: 38 Kenyan officers killed in ambush involving cattle
rustlers,” CNN, Nov 14, online at http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/13/world/africa/kenya-ambush, accessed 21 Sep, 2013.
41 J. Terrence McCabe (2004) Cattle Bring Us to Our Enemies: Turkana Ecology, Politics, and Raiding in
a Disequilibrium System. Human-environment interactions, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
42 Accessed 28 May, 2013, online at http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/2-KENYA-SAMBURU-CLAY-DOLLS- /161005276289?nma=true&si=BoxTNKDV8r7seBSxpmqIAFByQUQ%253D&orig_cvip=true&rt=nc
&_trksid=p2047675.l2557.
43 Piet Lepelaar (2013) “Gudza dolls, Turkana, Kenya,” accessed 21 Sep, 2013, online at
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44 Galerie Bruno Mignot, “Poupee cultuelle Gudza - Turkana – Kenya,” online at http://www.bruno-
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45 Online at http://www.tribalartfinder.com, accessed 1 Oct, 2013.
46 Online at http://www.tribalartfinder.com/product.php?productid=364, accessed 1 Oct, 2013. 47 AMICA Library, “Doll (Ngide),” accessed 21 Sep, 2013, online at
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48 Elisabeth L. Cameron & Doran H. Ross (eds.) Isn't S/He a Doll: Play and Ritual in African Sculpture,
UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles, p.86-87.
49 Cameron, “Playing with dolls,” p.30.
50 Pavitt, Turkana, p.62; Cameron, “Playing with dolls,” p.31 & 86. 51 Cameron, “Playing with dolls,” p.31.
52 Alan Donovan (1988) “Turkana Functional Art ,” African Arts 21 (3), 44-47.
53 Gallery Ezakwantu (2002-2013) “Phallic Dolls of the Turkana,” In: African Dolls - Fertility Dolls: Child
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54 Online at http://amica.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/AMICO~1~1~10789~201187:Doll--Ngide-,
accessed 3 Oct, 2013.
55 Accessed 3 Oct, 2013, online at
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56 Accessed 3 Oct, 2013, online at
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57 E.g. Cameron & Ross (eds.) Isn't S/He a Doll, p.86; Gallery Ezakwantu, “Phallic Dolls of the Turkana.” 58 Encyclopaedica Iranica (2011) “Amlaš (ii) Excavations,” accessed 21 Sep, 2013, online at
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exeavations-in-ihe-nearby-valleys-of-the-alborz-range.
59 Online at http://m.bonhams.com/auctions/16777/lot/194/, accessed 3 Oct, 2013.
60 Encyclopaedica Iranica (2012) “Ethiopia,” online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ethiopia,
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61 E.g., see Tudor Parfitt (1992/2000) Journey to the Vanished City: the Search for a Lost Tribe of Israel,
2nd ed., Random House, New York, p.336-339.
62 Online at http://www.galerie-puhze.de/4.74+M52087573ab0.0.html, accessed 3 Oct, 2013.
63 Tudor Parfitt (2008) The Lost Ark of the Covenant: Solving the 2,500-Year-Old Mystery of the Fabled
Biblical Ark, HarperOne, New York, p.202 & 228-229. The Yemeni town identified as the most likely origin of the Lemba forefathers (described later in the main text of this subsection) was populous only until its dam burst sometime in the 9th-12th centuries CE. If the Lemba exodus had not already
occurred, this event is likely to have served as a trigger.
64 Tudor Parfitt (2013) Black Jews in Africa and the Americas, Harvard University Press, p.x; Parfitt,
Journey to the Vanished City, p.12 & 355. Genetic analyses, however, do not support any connection between the Lemba and the Beta Israel; see Section 2.2.
65 H.A. Junod (1908) “The Lemba,” Folklore 19 (3), 276-287; Parfitt, Journey to the Vanished City, p.162,
58
http://www.shavei.org/category/communities/other_communities/africa/lemba-zimbabwe-malawi-
south-africa/?lang=en, accessed 21 Sep, 2013.
66 Magdel le Roux (2003) The Lemba: A Lost Tribe of Israel in Southern Africa?, UNISA Press, Pretoria;
Parfitt, Journey to the Vanished City.
67 Parfitt, Journey to the Vanished City; Parfitt, The Lost Ark of the Covenant p.228.
68 A. B. Spurdle & T. Jenkins (1996) “The origins of the Lemba ‘Black Jews’ of southern Africa: Evidence
from p12F2 and other Y-chromosome markers,” American Journal of Human Genetics 59 (5), 1126- 1133; Parfitt, Lost Ark of the Covenant, p.233-245.
69 K. Skorecki, S. Selig, S. Blazer, R. Bradman, N. Bradman, P.J. Warburton, M Ismajlowicz & M.F.
Hammer (1997) “Y chromosomes of Jewish priests,” Nature 385, 32; M.G. Thomas, K. Skorecki, H. Ben-Ami, T. Parfitt, N. Bradman & D.B.Goldstein (1998) “Origins of Old Testament priests,” Nature 394, 138-140; M.G. Thomas, T. Parfitt, D.A. Weiss, K. Skorecki, J.F. Wilson, M. le Roux, N. Bradman & D.B. Goldstein (2000) “Y chromosomes travelling south: The Cohen Modal Haplotype and the origins of the Lemba – the ‘Black Jews’ of southern Africa,” American Journal of Human Genetics 66 (2), 674-686.
70 F.L. Mendez, T.M. Karafet, T. Krahn, H. Ostrer, H. Soodyall & M.F. Hammer (2011) “Increased
resolution of Y chromosome haplogroup T defines relationships among populations of the Near East, Europe, and Africa,” Human Biology 83 (1), 39-53.
71 Parfitt, The Lost Ark of the Covenant, p.14.
72 Skorecki et al., “Y chromosomes of Jewish priests”; Thomas et al., “Origins of Old Testament priests;”
Thomas et al., “Y chromosomes travelling south;” Parfitt, Journey to the Vanished City, p.349-353.
73 S. Tofanelli, L. Taglioli, S. Bertoncini, P. Francalacci, A. Klyosov, L. Pagani (2014) “Mitochondrial and
Y chromosome haplotype motifs as diagnostic markers of Jewish ancestry: a reconsideration,” Frontiers in Genetics 5, e384. See also J.E. Ekins, E.N. Tinah, N.M. Myres, K.H. Ritchie, U.A. Perego, J.B. Ekins, L.A.D. Hutchison, L. Layton, M.L. Lunt, S.S. Masek, A.A. Nelson, M.E. Nelson, K.L. Pennington, J.L. Peterson, T. Tolley, S.R. Woodward (2005) “An updated world-wide
characterization of the Cohen Modal Haplotype,” American Society of Human Genetics 2005 Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah; poster #1045, online at
http://www.smgf.org/resources/papers/ASHG2005_Jayne.pdf, accessed 20 Aug, 2013.
74 Mendez et al., “Increased resolution of Y chromosome haplogroup T.”
75 W.D. Hammond Tooke (1937, reprinted 1974) The Bantu-speaking Peoples of Southern Africa,
Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, p. 81-84 & 115-116.
76 Parfitt, Journey to the Vanished City, p.62
77 John A. Shoup (2011) Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO,
Santa Barbara, p.165.
78 Parfitt, Journey to the Vanished City, p.334-341. 79 Parfitt, Journey to the Vanished City, p.330.
80 Eretz Yisroel, “The Jewish kingdoms of Arabia 390-626 CE decimated by the rise of Islam,” online at
http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~jkatz/arabia.html, accessed 17 Aug, 2013.
81 Marilee Wood (2002) “Poupée de fertilité: An interview revisited,” In: Sculptured in Clay – Iron Age
figurines from Schroda, Limpopo Province, South Africa, J.A. van Schalkwyk & E.O.M. Hanisch (eds.), National Cultural History Museum, Pretoria, p.81-93 [+frontispiece p.80], at p.92 (note 1).
82 Phallic pre-Columbian Valdivian “Venus” figure, from Ecuador, ca. 3500 - 2000 B.C. Elongated
cylindrical redware pottery figure without arms, with slit eyes and mouth, wearing a head covering with incised detailing. Artemis Gallery Ancient Art; accessed 23 Jun, 2013, online at
http://www.antiques.com/classified/Antiquities/Ancient-South-America/Antique-Valdivian-
Terracotta-Venus-Figure.
83 Date range 4500-2350 BCE; online at http://www.flickr.com/photos/hongshan_jade/7947268702/ and
http://www.flickr.com/photos/hongshan_jade/7947268580/in/photostream/, accessed 23 Jun, 2013.
84 Esther A. Dagan (1990) African Dolls for Play and Magic, Galérie Amrad African Arts, Montreal, p.5
Fig. 3. The reference to Caraya is puzzling, as it does not seem to be the name of a people or a place of significant size.
85 Edwin Hanisch (2002) “Schroda: The archaeological evidence,” In: Sculptured in Clay – Iron Age
figurines from Schroda, Limpopo Province, South Africa, J.A. van Schalkwyk & E.O.M. Hanisch (eds.), National Cultural History Museum, Pretoria, p.21-39.
59
86 Roger F. H. Summers (1957) “Human figures in clay and stone from Southern Rhodesia and adjoining
territories,” Occasional Papers of the National Museum of Southern Rhodesia 3 (21A), 61-75.
87 Edward Matenga (1993) Archaeological Figurines from Zimbabwe, [Studies in African Archaeology 5],
Uppsala University, Sweden, and Queen Victoria Museum, Zimbabwe, p.10-11, 16 & 26-33.
88 Edwin Hanisch (2002) “Classification of the Schroda clay figurines,” In: Sculptured in Clay – Iron Age
figurines from Schroda, Limpopo Province, South Africa, J.A. van Schalkwyk & E.O.M. Hanisch (eds.), National Cultural History Museum, Pretoria, p.47-67, at p.51-52.
89 Matenga, Archaeological Figurines from Zimbabwe, p.13. 90 Hanisch , “Classification of the Schroda clay figurines,” p.51.
91 A. de Mortillet (1906) “Deux curieuses pièces de la grotte du Placard,” Bulletin de la Société
Préhistorique Française 3 (10), 431-434.
92 Jean P. Delcourt & Giovanni F. Scanzi (1987) Potomo Waka – Fionde Lanciapietre Africane del
Popolo Baule, Milanos, Italy. See left hand page of 12th two-page spread, accessed 1 Oct, 2013, online
at http://www.vub.ac.be/BIBLIO/nieuwenhuysen/african-art/african-art-books-1987.html.
93 H. Delporte (1979) L’Image de la Femme dans l’Art Prehistorique, Picard, Paris, p.142. 94 Gimbutas, The Living Goddesses, p.37 Fig. 31.
95 The creation of 2D and 3D art forms de novo has its origins in Africa and this capability predates the
worldwide dispersal (perhaps 125,000 – 60,000 BCE) of anatomically modern humans. Proto- figurines from the Levant and Morocco attributed to Homo heidelbergensis date from 400,000 – 250,000 BCE, but are modifications of naturally suggestive pieces of stone. European female fertility carvings or “Venus figurines” date back to at least 35,000-40,000 BCE, as evidenced by a recent find at Hohle Fels cave in Germany, whose corpulent form has enormous breasts, wide hips, stumpy (almost conical) legs, and a suspension loop for a head. Morris-Kay, “Evolution of human artistic creativity.”
96 Other variants are also widespread, e.g. anthropomorphic phallic figurines without any female
characteristics are prevalent in SE Asia.
97 Wood, “Poupée de fertilité: An interview revisited,” p.80
98 Persian pottery of the 9-10th century CE has been found as far south as the Bazaruto Archipelago of
Mozambique; see Paul Sinclair (1982) “Chibuene — An early trading site in southern Mozambique,” Paideuma 28 [From Zinj to Zanzibar: Studies in History, Trade and Society on the Eastern Coast of Africa], 149-164. Moreover, the Iron Age occupants of Schroda are known to have traded with Arabic/Islamic traders on the east coast; see Edwin Hanisch (2002) “Schroda: The archaeological evidence,” p.33.
99 For a map of the network, see Tom Huffman (2002) “Archaeological background,” In: Sculptured in
Clay – Iron Age figurines from Schroda, Limpopo Province, South Africa, J.A. van Schalkwyk & E.O.M. Hanisch (eds.), National Cultural History Museum, Pretoria, p.9-19, Fig. 6.
100 Brigitte Pakendorf, Koen Bostoen & Cesare de Filippoa (2011) “Molecular perspectives on the Bantu
expansion: A synthesis,” Language Dynamics and Change 1, 50–88.
101 Wood, “Poupée de fertilité: An interview revisited,” p.88.
102 Griffin Art Gallery Travelogue, “Part 4 – Samburu National Reserve, Kenya,” online at
http://griffinartgallery.com/wordpress/2011/04/10/part-4-samburu-national-reserve-kenya/, accessed
22 Sep, 2013.
103 Tom Huffman, “Archaeological background,” p.10.
104 David K. Jordan (2013) “The Bantu expansion - An overview for college students,” online at
http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/clarifications/BantuExpansion.html , accessed 22 Sep,
2013.
105 Summers, “Human figures in clay and stone,” p.73.
106 Note that the East Bantu, with whose expansion we suggest the phallic female template migrated
throughout eastern Africa, hold a patrilineal ideology of procreation and recognize hereditary male leadership; see Huffman “Archaeological background.” However, eastern Bantu women retain their own clan name throughout their lives; see Wood, “Poupée de fertilité: An interview revisited.”
107 Dagan, African Dolls for Play and Magic, p.17 Fig. 5 & p.49 Fig. 4.7.
108 Friedrich Fülleborn (1906) “Das Deutsche Njassa- und Ruwuma-Gebiet, Land und Leute, nebst