Pruebas objetivas

The Tanzanian efforts to improve the quality of its education can be traced back to 1961 when the nation declared its independence. The country inherited a colonial education system from both German and British colonial rules. Traditionally, education was provided for a few privileged individuals and designed to serve the needs of colonialists and not the general population (MoEVT, 2000; Tanzania Institute of Education, 2013). After independence, the Education Act of 1962 was passed to standardize the provision of education in Tanzania, which replaced the 1927 Education Ordinance (URT, 1995). The National Education Act of 1962 aimed at providing a quality education system relevant to the Tanzanian context. One of the first changes made was the introduction of Kiswahili as a medium of instruction to be used together with the English language. URT (1995) reports that the Education for Self-Reliance (Elimu ya Kujitegemea) was introduced in 1967, as the major education philosophy in the country, which also serves as the educational policy. The Education for Self-Reliance aimed at the universalization of primary education and incorporating theory and practice, was popularly known as Education and Work (Elimu na Kazi) (MoEVT, 2000). Thereafter, several enacted laws and short term plans guided the education provision in the country up to 1978, when the

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National Education Act No. 25 was passed to review the provision of education (MoEVT, 2000; URT, 1995). This Education Act was revised in 1995 and led to the formulation of Tanzania Education and Training Policy.

In 1997, the Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) was launched as a comprehensive approach to realize the implementation of the Education Policy of 1995 and achieve the National Development Vision of 2025. The Tanzania Education and Training Policy of 1995 has been the main tool guiding the education system, although, recently, the new Education Policy of 2014 has been proposed in Tanzania. Under the ESDP, the master plans were formulated to harmonize the governance of the education sub-sectors that include the Basic Education Master Plan, the Secondary Education Master Plan, the Teacher Education Master Plan and the Higher Education Master Plan (MoEVT, 2000, p. 18). At all levels, education is provided by both government and private sectors. However, the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Vocational Training has the overall responsibility for formulating and overseeing the implementation of policies and education plans in Tanzania.

2.2.1 Education structure in Tanzania

Tanzania provides a formal education structure alongside a non-formal education structure that includes informal and adult education (MoEVT, 2008). The proposed Education Policy of 2014 suggests certain modifications in the formal education structure in Tanzania. However, these changes are not yet implemented. Table 2.1 indicates the current formal structure of education in Tanzania according to the Educational and Training Policy of 1995.

19 Table 2.1

Tanzania Formal Education Structureaccording to the Educational Policy of 1995

Level of education Years of study Age (in years) Classes/Grades

Pre-primary 2 5-6

Primary 7 7 Standard one

8 Standard two 9 Standard three 10 Standard four 11 Standard five 12 Standard six 13 Standard seven

Ordinary secondary 4 14 Form one

15 Form two

16 Form three

17 Form four

Advanced secondary 2 18 Form five

19 Form six

Tertiary and higher education

3+ 20 First year

21 Second year

22+ Third year+

As indicated in Table 2.1, the current education and schooling structure in Tanzania is

2+7+4+2+3+ (2 stands for two years of pre-primary school, 7 for seven years of primary school, 4 for four years of ordinary secondary school, 2 for two years of advanced secondary school and 3+ represents at least three years of higher education) (URT, 1995). According to the recent proposed changes made in the educational policy, the education structure will be 1+6+4+2+3+ (1 stands for one year of pre-primary school, 6 for six years of primary school, 4 for four years of ordinary secondary school, 2 for two years of advanced secondary school and 3+ for at least three years of higher education) (URT, 2014). In particular, the same levels of education are maintained in the new policy proposal. However, the primary school enrolment age is reduced from seven to six and the years of study for pre-primary and primary education are reduced to one and six, respectively. Students have to pass a special examination in order to qualify for the next level of education. Moreover, with the exception of pre-primary education, a school leaver from any level of education can enroll in any vocational and technical training.

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2.2.1.1Pre-primary education

Pre-primary education is offered to children between ages five and six for one to two years and is currently managed by the President’s Office-Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG). Pre-primary education in Tanzania was formalized in 1995. This education sector provides an important foundation for pupils for their primary education. The focus of pre-primary education is to teach pupils writing, arithmetic and reading skills, besides at this level there are no national examinations for promotion.

Enrolment of pupils in pre-primary education has increased in both public and private schools “by 46.1% from 1,069,823 in 2015 to 1,562,770 pupils in 2016” (PO-RALG, 2016a, p. 27). Although this sector has expanded, it has been hampered by a shortage of trained teachers (Mghasse & William, 2016; Mtahabwa & Rao, 2010). The national data reported in 2016, show that 79.7% of qualified teachers were teaching in pre-primary education, with the pupil teacher ratio of 1:131, against the standard ratio of 1:25 (PO- RALG, 2016a). This poor pupil-qualified teacher ratio was common in public owned schools. However, shortage of qualified teachers at this education level indicates that the numbers of applicants for pre-primary teacher training are too low to meet the growing demand. More effective teacher training is therefore absolutely essential for providing quality education services.

2.2.1.2Primary education

Primary education is a compulsory fee-free public service provided for all pupils in Tanzania. This education is also under the PO-RALG administration and is offered to pupils aged between 6 to 13 years. The National Primary School Leaving Examination is administered to all pupils during their final year and the results are used to promote them for ordinary secondary education level. With the exception of a few privately owned English medium schools, Kiswahili is a medium of instruction and English is taught as a subject.

In 2002, the Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP) was introduced as a government response to the Millennium Development Goals of expanding access to primary education. Introduction of this fee-free public service resulted in increasing pupil enrolment. Between the years 2014 to 2016, enrolment in primary schools has

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increased by five percent (PO-RALG, 2016a). With the expansion of primary education, there is an increasing demand for quality teaching and education in general.

2.2.1.3Secondary education

Secondary education is provided within the Tanzanian education structure at two main levels: ordinary and advanced. The medium of instruction at this level of education is English, while Kiswahili is taught as a compulsory subject (URT, 1995). The ordinary secondary level enrolls primary school leavers, while the advanced secondary education, which is a high school, enrolls candidates who have successfully completed their ordinary secondary education examination. High performing high-school students generally go on to different fields of professional training at tertiary level. However, the ordinary secondary education level is one of the exit points for students, especially those who do not continue with high school or tertiary education. The secondary education sector has expanded since the introduction of Secondary Education and Development Programme (SEDP) in 2004. For example, the number of secondary schools has increased by 254.5% from 1291 to 4576 between 2004 and 2013 years, respectively (URT, 2014).

2.2.1.4Tertiary and higher education

Tertiary and higher education in Tanzania includes Colleges and Universities. This level enrolls graduates from primary and secondary education for diverse qualifications which comprise certificates, diplomas, advanced diplomas and degrees in a range of fields of professions. Tertiary and higher education is primarily managed by the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Vocational Training, yet is offered in partnership with private institutions. The National Council for Technical Education and the Tanzania Commission for Universities are the two main accreditation bodies that coordinate and oversee the quality and provision of technical education and training and universities respectively.

Teacher education in the Tanzanian education structure falls under tertiary and higher education. According to URT (1995), Teachers’ Colleges are responsible for preparing teachers for Certificate and Diploma qualifications, while a Degree level teaching qualification is offered by Universities. URT (1995) states that a teacher with a Certificate is qualified to teach in primary education, while a Diploma qualification

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entitles a graduate to teach secondary school levels (Form I and II classes). A university graduate teacher can teach upper secondary school levels, (Form III to VI classes). However, in some circumstance, teachers do not teach the levels equivalent to the qualifications they possess.

Two of the major challenges affecting the provision of secondary education in Tanzania could be associated with poor teaching (Bhalalusesa et al., 2011; Laddunuri, 2012) and the shortage of highly qualified teachers. It is well recognized in Tanzania that the quality of education mainly rests on the quality of knowledge and skills of teachers. Therefore, Tanzania like other African countries needs a considerable investment in teacher PL to promote quality teaching (Moon, 2007). Bold et al. (2017) stress that continuous PL is the most effective way through which a crew of competent teachers can be created. The subsequent section discusses ways through which the capacity of teachers to engage in meaningful PL could be enhanced particularly, in Tanzanian schools. The section starts with the theories underpinning teacher engagement in SBPL.