This section gives an overview of a number of strategies that have been found to contribute to student teacher knowledge in relation to using ICT for pedagogical purposes. Firstly, it introduces the idea of learning about, with and in ICT and the shift to learning about, with and through ICT. It then goes on to describe modelling, critical reflection and the practicum experience as pivotal influences that can contribute to student teacher knowledge in relation to ICT use for pedagogical purposes.
Student Teachers Learning With, In and About
The notion that student teachers and teachers need to learn about, with and through ICT is not new. In 1995, Brown argued that there was a tripartite relationship between what he called learning with ICT across curriculum areas, learning specific knowledge in this domain and learning about the relationship between this area of technology and society (Brown, 1995). He described these concepts as dimensions where student teachers learned particular aspects of ICT. For example, learning with ICT is about student teachers using ICT to learn across
the curriculum in support of and to extend their teaching. Learning in ICT relates to student teachers becoming more competent and knowledgeable in the use of ICT. Learning about ICT involves student teachers learning about the relationships between ICT and society. Put another way, it is about students gaining a broad insight into the beliefs, values and ideologies surrounding ICT and understanding implications such as who is advantaged or disadvantaged by its use.
Pearson (2003) built on Brown’s (1995) work and drew attention to the need for ITE providers to consider placing emphasis on student teachers having opportunities for learning with ICT. He argued that the notion of learning with ICT should play a significant role in the way teacher education courses were designed, implemented and assessed, as this would contribute to student teachers’ understanding of how to use ICT for pedagogical purposes. He states, “With greater experience of learning with new technology, beginning teachers should be better placed to integrate ICT into their own teaching and bring about pedagogical changes in schools that have been anticipated for so long” (p. 54).
Pearson (2003), writing about the focus at that time in Australia to support beginning teachers’ use of ICT to enhance their teaching practice, noted a need to place more emphasis on learning with rather than about ICT. He argued that, for student teachers’ use of ICT to be meaningful, there must be space for their learning with the use of ICT. By this, he meant that ITE programme designers should take into account time for student teachers to engage with, learn with and experience ICT as a part of their assignment work. He also signalled that ITE providers should ensure their programmes have opportunities for student teachers to explore how ICT can support traditional as well as new and different ways of learning.
More recently, Earl and Forbes (2012) redefined the concepts of with, in and
about, as outlined by Brown (1995), to learning about, with and through ICT. Earl
and Forbes (2012) illustrate their view of learning about ICT as being to do with learning how to create PowerPoint presentations, use software programs and so on as well as learning about the context and influence ICT can have on people’s lives and how ICT is a part of our work lives and communication. They explain that
learning with ICT in an education context is using ICT to supplement and complement teachers’ usual ways of teaching and learning. Earl and Forbes suggest that this includes using ICT alongside other teaching strategies as another choice or experience for students to engage with. Finally, they describe learning
through as learning that would not be possible without the use of ICT. The
examples of this they suggest include those of mobile learning and distance learning where ICT has made collaborative learning across time and space possible.
The description of learning with, in and about ICT by Brown (1995) and Pearson (2003) and the more recent descriptions of learning about, with and through ICT articulated by Earl and Forbes (2012) were formed on the premise that ITE providers need to provide opportunities for student teachers to develop personal and pedagogical understandings of the relationships between these aspects for them to be able to integrate ICT successfully into their teaching practice. These scholars agree there needs to be more emphasis placed on the notion of learning
through ICT and that, ideally, ITE providers would ensure their programmes have
opportunities for student teachers to explore how ICT can support traditional as well as new and different ways of learning.
Modelling the Use of ICT for Pedagogical Purposes
The modelling of ICT for pedagogical purposes within ITE programmes and student practicum placements is highlighted in the literature as a strategy that contributes to student teachers’ understanding of how to use ICT. Chen (2010) contends it is teacher education lecturer’s responsibility to model ICT use in their teaching, as this will play a critical part in the student teachers developing ICT efficacy. Chen also asserts that student-centred modelling of ICT is important during student teacher practicum experiences because both experiences contribute to student teachers’ motivation to use ICT in student-centred ways. Chen (2010) established that student teachers were more inclined to use ICT as pedagogical tools during their practicum experiences if ICT was promoted and modelled in their ITE programmes. In addition, it has been shown that students’ understandings of the affordances of ICT are developed through modelling by lecturers in campus-based programmes (Akin, 2013; Ertmer, 2005; Katic, 2008; Larkin et al., 2012a; Teo, Chai, et al., 2008). Findings from a five-year
longitudinal study by Thieman (2008) highlighted that “teachers tend to use the technologies they were taught” (p. 356). During Thieman’s study, student teachers were taught how to integrate technology in four areas: planning and designing effective lessons, maximising student learning, facilitating assessment and enhancing productivity and professional practice. By the completion of the study, 85% of the participants had used technology as a teaching tool during their practicum experiences, and they used the tools they had learned about in their ITE programme thereby highlighting the value of modelling and experiencing ICT use for teaching purposes in ITE programme environments. Supporting this position, Cheng, Cheng and Tang (2010) state, “The quality of teacher education programmes can be improved only if the teacher educators help student teachers to identify the gap between teaching and theory and continually facilitate them in connecting their learnt theory and practice” (p. 102). Further endorsing this point, Sutton (2011) maintains that the relevance of ICT in education will only become apparent to student teachers if ITE provider lecturers model it in their content areas.
Critical Reflection on the Use of ICT for Pedagogical Purposes
Opportunities for student teachers to reflect critically on their existing and perceived views on the role of ICT in education is emphasised in the literature as another strategy that contributes to student teacher understanding of ICT use for pedagogical purposes (Chai, Koh, & Tsai, 2011; Gao et al., 2011; Hammond et al., 2009). Gao, Tan, Wang, Wong and Choy (2011) argue that reflection plays a critical role in the construction of teacher knowledge bases. Furthermore, they state, “We recommend that teacher preparation programs could engage pre- service teachers to use ICT to enhance student learning, and reflect on the impact of their own experiences on their student learning” (p. 1010). Providing space within ITE programmes for student teachers to reflect on and change (if needed) their underlying beliefs is considered a critical component in the construction of knowledge (Chai & Lim, 2011; Gao et al., 2011). Duncan and Barnett (2009) claim that student teachers bring their own underlying pedagogical beliefs that influence their adoption of ICT in their developing teaching practice. Opportunities for students to engage in reflective conversations were emphasised by Duncan and Barnett (2009); they also assert, “We cannot over-emphasize the
value of reflective dialogue to guide practice around teaching in higher education” (p. 373). They go on to suggest ITE programmes should be taking the lead in ensuring that their graduate teachers are equipped to use a range of ICT in their teaching practice. For this to become a reality, they argue that ITE providers must ensure their lecturers are using effective pedagogy that includes the promotion of critical thinking and encourages reflective interactions with other students, lecturers, technology and content.
Student Teachers’ Practicum Experience with ICT
Opportunities for student teachers to apply theory to practice have been a part of many ITE programmes for some time. Smith and Lev-Ari (2005) state, “There seems to be high agreement among educational theorists that the practical part is a strong and valued component of the education of teachers” (p. 292). This apprenticeship approach involves student teachers spending time in schools or early childhood centres to test and put into practice their developing pedagogical understandings and theories, learned under the supervision of an associate/mentor teacher. These practicum experiences also allow student teachers to observe and learn from other teachers in the classroom or early childhood centre (Buitink, 2009; K. Smith & Lev-Ari, 2005). Associate/mentor teachers can influence student teachers’ meaningful use of ICT in their developing teaching practice if they are using technology in ways that are pedagogically sound in their own teaching practice (Pamuk & Thompson, 2009). For instance, Lambert and Gong (2010) assert that practicum experiences enable student teachers to observe and participate in meaningful opportunities that allow them to experience learning in action, thus having an important influence on their developing pedagogies, including the use of ICT. When practicum experiences include the effective use of ICT and student teachers are encouraged to take a hands-on approach, they can learn by using technology in authentic ways that reflect the context that they are in (Hixon & So, 2009; Mueller, Wood, Willoughby, Ross, & Specht, 2008). Authentic experiences during practicum contribute to the preparation of student teachers’ future teaching practice by enabling them to incorporate their theoretical knowledge into the curriculum (Chai & Lim, 2011; Sutton, 2011). Such experiences may also allow student teachers to observe teachers using a range of ICT tools (Mueller et al., 2008), which may influence how they will use ICT in
their classrooms in the future. Buitink (2009) suggests the types of practicum experiences and their associate teachers’ level of support can either positively, or negatively influence student teachers’ attitudes and dispositions towards ICT. However, some others argue that a supportive associate teacher/mentor is not enough. For example, Starkey (2010) maintains that student teachers need to be placed with an associate teacher/mentor who has sound pedagogical content knowledge. This will ensure discussions and practice focus on strengthening the student teachers’ learning within the curriculum in order to explore pedagogical content knowledge that can be incorporated with the technological knowledge they gain in ITE programmes, otherwise this will remain disconnected and not become an integral part of their teaching practice. Despite the high profile of ICT in education today, for many ITE providers, ICT does not appear to feature highly in their programmes. As a result, student teachers can be placed in practicum environments where there is very little or no support for ICT (Chen, 2010; Sutton, 2011). Access to technology may differ between practicum environments, and associate teacher/mentor teachers often have very different ICT knowledge and skills, with some using very little ICT in their teaching practice. As a result of these variations, some student teachers may not feel it is appropriate to use ICT whilst they are on practicum because they are unsure of their associate teacher/mentor’s views of ICT and how they will assess and evaluate the student teachers’ use of it (Gao et al., 2011).
Given the four key strategies outlined above, understanding the notion of learning about, learning with and learning through ICT use combined with opportunities for modelling and space for critical reflection within ITE programmes are important aspects to consider in relation to student teacher knowledge. These, along with the combination of opportunities for student teachers to experience using ICT both within the campus-based aspects of their ITE programme and during practicum, may contribute to student teachers’ knowledge about how to use ICT for pedagogical purposes in their teaching practice. In this study, these aspects are important, as they provides a basis of understanding how students experience learning and can increase their knowledge and therefore can inform how a model to support increased ICT appropriation can be developed.