1. Derechos de terceros
1.1. Régimen de propiedad intelectual
Girma Balcha and Tesema Tanto
Local varieties’ adaptation to marginal agricultural ecosystems
Local varieties are genetically diverse and well adapted to local agro-ecosystems. Local varieties have important qualities such as pest resistance, frost tolerance, and post harvest storage properties consistent with traditional technologies, which further increase their overall productivity. Farm-based enhancement of local varieties leads to improved and more reliable yields. Many poor farmers throughout Ethiopia, and particularly those in marginal environments, have to produce crops in conditions of unpredictable but recurring drought, low soil fertility systems, and without inorganic fertilizer and agro-chemical inputs.
Although modern improved varieties may produce good yields under near optimal farming conditions of rainfall and a complete input package, they frequently
under-perform in adverse conditions. In contrast, traditional landraces or local varieties can perform more reliably under poor conditions, and incur few of the additional input costs, such as inorganic fertilizers, required by many improved modern varieties.
In general, plant breeders have found it difficult to develop viable improved modern varieties for marginal environments, in part because of an incomplete understanding of why farmers choose to produce their traditional landrace varieties. One of the common assumptions by breeders is that improved varieties selected in more optimal environments will also out-yield landrace populations in marginal environments, so that marginal environments are not specifically targeted in breeding programmes.63 As a result, many farmers do not have a real choice between improved
modern and local varieties, because none of the improved varieties are appropriate for their marginal environments, or fulfil their diverse needs.
Maintaining local varieties as a key feature of small-scale farming systems enables local farmers to retain shared ownership and control over the genetic base of their crops, breeding and adapting their local varieties to suit field conditions in highly variable agro-ecosystems. Farmers can therefore choose to rely less on improved varieties, over which they may have little or no genetic control. The conservation and sustainable use of crop diversity for sustainable livelihoods and poverty alleviation has been internationally recognized in several landmark agreements including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Local varieties in the course of selection, recombination, and mutation have developed their distinctive traits to adapt to marginal production environments. For example, crops like sorghum are adaptive to drought. Farmers sow sorghum seed even under low moisture conditions before the onset of the rain, which is called ‘dry planting’. The seed germinates and shows slow growth in the early developmental stage, however during subsequent rains, it develops well to reach the reproductive stage. With land degradation, soils have become acidic in many places, and soil fertility is also deteriorating. Local varieties which have adapted to these conditions show stable yields. Certain traditional varieties of barley have developed characteristics that enable them to withstand frost hazards. Depending on the type of changes in the environment, crop species can develop the resilience to adapt to various changes in climate.
One has to question why local varieties have not been given due attention, although they are available in huge diversity in Ethiopia, especially for crops where Ethiopia is a centre of origin, like sorghum and teff, and for crops where Ethiopia is a secondary centre of diversity, like barley and durum wheat. On the other hand, a large number of crops like coffee can be enhanced using the existing gene pool for specific quality traits like low caffeine content from the wild coffee. The stable production of farmers’ varieties and the increased grain yields of certain crops in marginal lands have not been fully incorporated into modern varieties; nor has their use in the agricultural extension system been supported. The importance of farmers’ varieties for food security needs to be recognized, and international marketing opportunities need to be further explored.
Ex situ conservation of local varieties
It is generally accepted that genetic diversity in crops is not evenly distributed across the world. Ethiopia has been recognized as among the few genetically rich areas of the world in terms of crop diversity ever since the expedition by a Russian plant collector, N.I. Vavilov, in 1927. Under Ethiopian conditions, crops such as teff, (Eragrostis Tef), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), Niger seed/noog (Guizotia abysinica), gomenzer (Brassica
carinata), and others have been domesticated and have developed a wide range of
adapted landraces or local varieties. Although crops like finger millet (Eleusine
caracana), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), sesame (Sesamum indicum), barley (Hordeum vulgare),
durum wheat (Triticum durum), faba bean (Vicia faba), lentil (Lens culinaris), field pea (Pisum sativum), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), chick pea (Cicer arietinum), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), and others were domesticated elsewhere, an immense variation in agronomic and economic traits is encountered in Ethiopia. In the early 1970s, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) strongly recommended the formation of a network of plant genetic resources centres (or genebanks as they are commonly called) around the world. Ethiopia was given highest priority because of its tremendous wealth of genetic diversity.
Table 3.3 Number of germplasm accessions collected, conserved ex situ, and characterized
at the IBC until 2007, with the regional distribution of local varieties
Crop
category species No of Total no of accessions accessions% % Charac-terized Tigray Afar Amhara Oromia
Cereals 9 40025 69 42 3260 44 9464 10960 Pulses 10 7333 13 6 388 - 2955 2064 Oil crops 8 7290 13 6 267 - 1757 1504 Industrial crops 4 120 0.2 - - 50 22 Others 94 3561 6 20 - 580 991 Total 125 58329 54 3936 44 14809 15541 Crop
category Somalia Benshangul gumuz SNPPR Gambella Harari AbabaAddis Diredawa Donation/unspecified
Cereals 152 104 2055 353 25 38 96 13474 Pulses 21 79 576 18 - 4 1 1227 Oil crops 14 47 306 14 1 4 1 3375 Industrial crops - 7 19 2 - - - 20 Others 10 110 820 68 2 12 4 944 Total 197 347 3776 455 28 58 102 19040
In recognition of the importance of conserving plant genetic resources, and in order to avert the danger of genetic erosion, the former Plant Genetic Resources Centre/ Ethiopia (PGRC/E) – now the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC) – was established in 1976. So far about 58,000 accessions are conserved ex situ for field crops, of which 69% are cereals. For more details of the collection, including the regional distribution of the collected germplasm material, see Table 3.3.
The Institute of Biodiversity Conservation not only collects and characterizes these landraces, but also supplies seeds to national and international research centres upon request and after reaching agreements. From these materials, a number of promising improved varieties were developed through national research. Overall some 103 improved released varieties from the total of 146 released varieties developed have their basis in local varieties (Table 3.4).
Table 3.4 Crops collected by IBC and used to develop improved varieties in Ethiopia
Crop type Total no of released
varieties from local varieties Released varieties % Local varieties from total release
Teff 16 16 100 Durum wheat 13 13 100 Emmer wheat 1 1 100 Sorghum 18 14 78 Finger millet 3 2 67 Faba bean 14 10 71 Field pea 18 12 67 Chick pea 7 1 14 Haricot bean 18 5 28 Niger seed/Noug 4 4 100 Rape seed 4 3 75 Sesame 10 5 50 Coffee 20 17 85 Total 146 103 71
Source: National Agricultural Input Authority, Crop Variety Register Issue Numbers 3-6.
On farm conservation and the sustainable use of local varieties
Landraces are genetically diverse populations that form a bridge between wild and modern cultivated varieties. Through human selection, adaptation and exchange of genes with wild species, they form an important genetic diversity that has evolved in local environments over long periods of time. Local varieties form an indispensable source of genetic material for plant breeding and much of the world’s food supply depends upon the development of new crop varieties. Indigenous landraces are of tremendous value as sources of genes for providing resistance to diseases, pests, drought and other stress conditions. For example, a gene from an Ethiopian barley landrace protects California barley from viruses, and saves some US$ 160 million dollars per year.
Many small-scale farmers in Ethiopia and elsewhere in developing countries have often traditionally retained a diverse informal seed stock. The seed stock includes a range of varieties for several crops. This enables them to choose the variety that best suits the highly variable agro-ecological conditions, changing from year to year and even from field to field. By continually generating and maintaining a diverse seed stock, farmers are able to retain closer control over desirable crop traits.
Initial conservation efforts by the international scientific community focused on collecting and maintaining germplasm ex situ in genebanks. However, it has become increasingly evident that ex situ conservation of local varieties must be complemented by on-farm or in situ conservation under local farming conditions if the evolutionary interaction between crop varieties and their wild relatives, crucial for generating potential genes, is to be maintained.
A Dynamic Farmer-Based Approach to the Conservation of Ethiopian Plant Genetic Resources Project was undertaken from 1995 to 2002, supported by GEF and UNDP and based at the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation. A key element of that project was to work with local farmers in their farming systems, enhancing popular local varieties and conservation, particularly through farm-based participatory plant breeding using crop conservation associations and community seedbanks. This practice has linked ex situ conservation with in situ or on-farm conservation in different agro-ecological farming systems. An example of synergy that has emerged from this project is an innovative contribution to addressing the pressing food security and sustainable livelihood challenges faced by many poor farmers in Ethiopia. The project has demonstrated that farm-based landrace conservation can yield real food security and sustainable livelihood benefits, particularly for poor food-insecure farmers in marginal agricultural areas, while conserving biodiversity.
Twelve community genebanks or seedbanks were established in four regions of the country, namely Tigray, Amhara, Oromia and Southern Nation Nationalities and Peoples Regions (SNNPR). From 1997 to 1999, in these four regions two districts (woredas) each were selected based on variation in agro-ecosystems, landrace crops, extent of genetic erosion, etc., making the total number of districts 12. To ensure the seed supply in each district and to strengthen the efforts of conservator farmers, some 137 tons of 64 farmer varieties were purchased from nearby communities and stored in community genebanks, which stored seeds of two to eleven crop species. Johannes Engels and colleagues give more details on the community gene/seedbanks in Section 3.5 of this book.
The community gene/seedbanks were constructed with the objectives of safe seed storage, seed supply, seed processing, farmers training and the creation of office space for the curators. Farmers also view community gene/seedbanks as helping to lower the risk of inter-seasonal seed storage, as they return the seed loaned to them at the beginning of the previous season at a low interest rate (10-15%) and then re- borrow new seed at the start of the next planting season. Community gene/seedbanks have now become very popular among conservator farmers. For example, project reviews towards the end of the project revealed that between 85 and 90% of the conservator farmers were obtaining their planting seed from the community gene/seedbanks, augmented by their own conserved seed.
Based on the rules and regulations of the country related to the establishment of associations, i.e. Proclamation No. 147/91, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) and respective cooperative offices of the regions organized 12 crop conservation associations with a total membership of 3359 farmers, of whom 16% are female farmers. These associations have the objectives of: (i) conservation of landrace crops with the associated traditional knowledge; (ii) common use of the
community gene/seedbanks for seed storage; (iii) provision of seed loans at comparably low interest rates; (iv) replacement of already lost landrace crops through reintroduction from the national genebank and restoration in their respective agro- ecosystems; and (v) purchase of the required local landrace seed and enhancement for further use.
Participatory genetic enhancement of local varieties
The IBC practiced landrace enhancement with the objectives of: maintaining diversity, keeping the integrity of the landrace population, and using low inputs while identifying the characteristics needed to upgrade the overall performance of the landrace populations, including market value. Farmers participated in the landrace enhancement practice; they chose the desired traits for their local environment, including characteristics related to social, gastronomic, economic and cultural values. In this way, with the participation of farmers, local varieties were evaluated and compared with improved modern varieties. For example, Table 3.5 shows the preference criteria formulated by farmers in Lume and Chefedonssa districts for the selection of durum wheat landrace populations.
Table 3.5 Farmers’ and researchers’ comparative evaluation of durum wheat local varieties,
with improved durum wheat varieties at the IBC in situ sites
Factors considered Local varieties Improved varieties • Adaptation Adapt well to low moisture and
planted in August Long maturing and planted in June
• Need for inorganic
fertilizer Require small amount Fertilizer compulsory
• Seed requirement Less seed per unit of land 76% less than the requirement of improved seed
Recommended rate is compulsory
• Tillering High tillering capacity, 30-50%
more than improved varieties Few tillers, often less than 10
• Shattering Non shattering, would last long
before harvest
Shatters if not harvested immediately after maturity
• Grain weight per unit
volume Heavier, a sack of 100 kgs weighs up to 30 kg more A full sack of 100 kg weighs the same
• Disease, pest, weed
and frost
resistance/tolerance
More tolerant Often unpredictable
• Yield stability Fairly stable or within predictable
range Unpredictable, highly variable
• Utility Multiple food use Limited choice • Baking or dough
quality
Good water holding capacity Poor water holding capacity
• Storage quality of
grain Stay for more than six months Attacked by weevil shortly after storage
• Use of straw High feed value Feed value is inferior • Nutritional value High filling ability Poor filling ability
Both men and women were involved in the evaluation. The selected genotypes were multiplied and evaluated for yield potential and other attributes in the context of
farmers’ production practices in various fields. Interestingly, most local varieties performed better than improved varieties under marginal production conditions in medium and poor production seasons. However, under optimum production conditions, improved varieties were superior. This shows that improved varieties are the best yielders only in optimum production conditions for their complete production packages.
Our studies have demonstrated that, despite their high yield potential, improved varieties failed due to adverse soil conditions and frequent drought under both bad and medium production conditions. On the other hand, local varieties did relatively well, without the application of inorganic fertilizers and other agro- chemicals. A further significant finding was that successive generations of landrace varieties demonstrated a continued productivity increase. Landrace cultivation has also shown unexpected multiplier effects, as shown in Figure 3.1. A majority of farmers in Lume and Gimbichu districts mentioned that local varieties provided additional livelihood benefits due to their reliability and low production costs. Landraces thus have a significant role to play in marginal farming systems, providing locally generated and sustainable solutions for improved food security, better livelihoods and agro- biodiversity conservation.
Figure 3.1 Comparison of local (landrace) and improved varieties of durum wheat in Lume
and Gimbichu districts for yield potential in good, medium and bad years
Fig 2. Comparison of landraces and Improved varieties of Durum wheat in Lume and Gumbichu districts for Yield potential in Good,
Medium and Bad years
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Good year Medium year
Bad year Good year
Medium year
Bad year
Lume Gumbichu Production seasons and sites
Y ield in k g /he c tare Landrace Improved variety
Mainstreaming the informal seed system in marginal production systems
Farmers have little or no genetic control over improved varieties, whereas they have long-standing knowledge of how to cultivate, conserve and use local varieties. Making the mainstreaming of local varieties a key feature of small-scale farming systems enables local farmers to retain shared ownership and control over the genetic base of their crops, and to breed and adapt their local varieties to suit highly heterogeneous agro-ecological field conditions.
One of the major problems hindering the implementation of biodiversity conservation objectives is clearly associated with lack of proper attention to the conservation of natural resources, including local varieties. Therefore, all development activities should pay maximum attention to the conservation and sustainable use of these resources. This can be achieved by raising public awareness at all levels and by courageous implementation. The national constitution recognizes the need for the conservation and sustainable use of resources. The interpretation of this legal provision as related to biological diversity is left to federal and regional public agencies and to private agencies involved in economic development activities. While this may be appropriate as a general legal framework, there is a need for a process that ensures correct application of this provision at operational level.64 The development and
implementation of programs for the conservation and rational utilization of biological diversity should be coordinated in order to avoid duplicating resources, manpower, and material. To this end, a coordinating mechanism should be put in place.65 The
overall economic development effort tends to be more geared towards increasing agricultural production and productivity exclusively through the generation and dissemination of high input technologies and practices.
Complementarities exist between progress towards increasing agricultural productivity through modern technologies (improved uniform varieties and inorganic fertilizers) in optimum potential areas, and progress towards achieving better household food security in marginal agricultural areas through traditional technology (genetic enhancement of local varieties) by promotion of improved organic farming techniques. The current seed policies serve the formal seed system at large. Therefore, appropriate policy, law and regulations need to be in place to promote wide acceptance of the informal seed system, especially in the marginal agricultural production systems.* A policy environment that mainstreams the informal seed
system, integrating it into the extension service, is of paramount importance.
Concluding remarks
Local varieties have multiple benefits, including low input requirements, superior culinary and nutritional qualities, and specific adaptation to marginal areas with little or no access to chemical fertilizer inputs; these have all contributed to the continued cultivation of local varieties. In general, improved varieties do not meet farmers’ diverse culinary needs; nor are they adapted to specific local environmental niches. In our studies, we have seen farmers’ management practices – including seed selection,
* Creating enabling policy frameworks supporting informal seed supply is discussed in Chapter
seed exchange, and seed storage and use – influencing genetic diversity of landrace populations. Like many other countries in the world, Ethiopia faces changes that disrupt the social and ecological conditions underlying farming practices, including the local seed system. Conserved local varieties serve as a gene pool for farmers to select desired lines to meet their changing needs. For reasons related to conservation, economics, and social and environmental considerations, then, the informal seed system and its local varieties should be supported.