YOU KNOW YOU ARE READY FOR THE TEST IF YOU ARE ABLE TO…
Discuss physical sex differences between males and females.
Describe the psychological gender differences between males and females including gender development and gender stereotypes.
Introduce three of the most influential studies on sexual behavior in the United States.
Explain the concept of sexual orientation.
Describe the physical and psychological problems that can lead to sexual dysfunction.
Discuss the most common sexually transmitted infections in the United States.
RAPID REVIEW
Sex is defined as the physical differences between males and females. Primary sex
characteristics are those physical characteristics that are present at birth and are directly involved in human reproduction. In the female, the primary sex characteristics include the vagina, uterus, and ovaries. In the male the primary sex characteristics include the penis, the testes (also called the testicles), the scrotum, and the prostate gland. In the female embryo, the development of the gonads into ovaries causes the release of estrogens, which leads to the development of the remaining sex organs, while in the male, the development of the gonads into testes leads to the release of androgens and further
development of the male sex organs. Secondary sex characteristics develop during puberty and are indirectly involved in human reproduction. Female secondary sex characteristics include a growth spurt after the first menstrual cycle, enlarged breasts, maturation of mammary glands, wider hips, pubic hair, and fat deposits on the buttocks and thighs. Male secondary sex characteristics include a deepening voice, facial chest and pubic hair, development of coarser skin texture, and a growth spurt.
Approximately 1 out of 1,500 children in the United States are born with ambiguous sexual organs, a condition previously referred to as hermaphroditism, but now more commonly called
intersexed or intersexual. Many physicians view the condition as an abnormality that should be repaired by sexual reassignment surgery. However, many intersexed individuals feel that the decision regarding surgery should be made by the individual themselves when they are old enough to make their own choice.
Gender is defined as the psychological aspects of being feminine or masculine. Gender roles are a culture’s expectation for behavior of a person who is perceived as male or female, and gender typing is the process by which individuals learn their expected gender role. A person’s sense of being female or male is called their gender identity and is influenced by both biology and environment. For example, some researchers believe that exposure to certain hormones during fetal development influences gender identity in addition to the strong environmental pressures of family and friends to behave in the
“expected” manner. Social learning theory proposes that individuals learn their gender identities by observing the behaviors of the people around them and being rewarded for imitating the appropriate gender behavior. Gender schema theory suggests that children acquire their gender role by organizing their own behavior around their internalized schema of “boy” or “girl.” A stereotype is a concept held about a person or group of people that is based on superficial, irrelevant characteristics. A gender stereotype is a generalization about males or females that ignores individual differences. Female gender stereotypes often include characteristics such as illogical, emotional, sensitive, nurturing, while male gender stereotypes can include characteristics such as aggressive, logical, decisive, and unemotional.
Sexism refers to prejudice about males and females. Benevolent sexism refers to the acceptance of positive stereotypes about males and females that leads to unfair treatment. Psychologist Sandra Bem coined the term androgyny to describe people who display both male and female characteristics. With regard to cognitive differences between gender, men tend to perform better than women on certain spatial tasks, while women tend to perform better than men on tests of perceptual speed. Researchers are still investigating the relative contributions of the environment and heredity on these gender differences.
However, more recent research by Else-Quest and colleagues in 2010 indicated that the supposed
differences in math abilities between boys and girls is likely due to girls’ lack of confidence rather than any biological difference in the working of the brain. With regard to communication, women tend to use a
“relate” style of communication while men often use a “report” style.
Three landmark studies have provided much of the information available today in the United States about human sexuality. In 1957, William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted the first direct observational study on the physical aspects of the human sexual response by recording the physiological reactions of 700 female and male volunteers while they were engaged in sexual intercourse or
masturbation. Their research led them to propose four stages of the sexual response cycle: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, respectively. It is during the orgasm stage that men release semen, the sperm-containing fluid that is ejaculated from the penis. Men show a refractory period after the fourth phase during which time they cannot achieve erection. The valuable research of Masters and Johnson has helped a tremendous number of individuals but was extremely controversial when it was originally published. In 1948, Alfred Kinsey published his findings from a large survey of adult sexual behavior in the United States. His findings were based on face-to-face interviews with participants and included details about the frequency of behaviors such as masturbation, anal sex, premarital sex, and sexual orientation. Some have criticized the Kinsey study on the basis of methodological issues. The next large-scale study of human sexual behavior was published in 1993 by Samuel Janus and Cynthia Janus. The Janus Report described sexual behaviors based on the survey responses of 3,000 individuals from across the United States. In addition to topics examined previously, The Janus Report also looked at sexual deviance among other new topics. A recent study by Sanders and colleagues in 2010 suggests that surveys of sexual behavior can be problematic because the definition of “having sex” appears to vary considerably across individuals.
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual attraction for members of a particular sex. The term heterosexual refers to people who are sexually attracted to members of the opposite physical sex, and the term homosexual refers to individuals who are attracted to members of their own physical sex. A recent national survey by Mosher and colleagues in 2005 indicated that about 2.3 percent of men and 1.3 percent of women aged 15 to 44 years consider themselves to be exclusively or predominantly
homosexual. A person who is bisexual may be either male or female and is attracted to both sexes.
Mosher’s national survey indicated that 1.8 percent of men and 2.8 percent of women consider themselves to be bisexual.
Many research studies have examined the biology of homosexuality. One of the earliest studies, conducted by Ellis and colleagues in the 1980s, suggested that male children of mothers who experienced severe stress during the second trimester of pregnancy had a significantly higher chance of being
homosexual in orientation. A more recent study, conducted by Savic and colleagues in 2005, found that homosexual men and heterosexual women respond similarly, and quite differently from heterosexual men, to a testosterone-based pheromone (glandular chemical) that is secreted in perspiration.
A sexual dysfunction is a problem with sexual functioning or the actual physical workings of the sex act and can be caused by a number of factors. Organic or stress-induced dysfunctions are the sexual problems that are caused by physical disorders or by psychological distress. The sexual problems can be in three areas of sexual activity: sexual interest, arousal, and response. Paraphilia is a sexual dysfunction in which the person achieves sexual arousal and fulfillment through sexual behavior that is unusual or socially unacceptable.
A sexually transmitted infection, or STI, is an infection spread primarily through sexual contact.
Some common STIs in the United States include chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, genital warts, and AIDS (or acquired immune deficiency syndrome). AIDS is caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which wears down the body’s immune system, making the individual highly susceptible to infections. The virus can be transmitted from person to person through exposure to blood, vaginal fluid, semen, and breast milk. There are no documented cases of the spread of AIDS through tears or saliva. The Centers for Disease Control estimates that about 1.1 million adults and adolescents are currently living with HIV in the United States; nearly half a million individuals have developed AIDS. Individuals can protect themselves from STIs by using condoms, having a sexual relationship with one uninfected partner, not sharing needles or other drug equipment, having regular
exams for STIs, learning the common symptoms of STIs, talking openly with your partner about infections and condom use, and realizing that abstinence is the only 100 percent effective prevention.
STUDY HINTS
18. This chapter introduced three of the most important studies on human sexuality conducted to date. Use the following table to help you summarize the details of these studies
Researcher(s) Date of Study Method Used Major Findings
19. Try matching each of the STIs listed on the left with the correct set of symptoms on the right.
chlamydia
initial symptoms of a painless open sore that usually appears on the penis or around or in the vagina; if untreated, may go on to more advanced stages, including a transient rash and, eventually, serious involvement of the heart and central nervous system
syphilis
infection caused by the herpes simplex virus, which causes a painful rash of fluid-filled blisters on the genitals
gonorrhea
affects the genitals of both sexes, causes burning or difficulty with urination, itching, and a yellow or green discharge; easily treated with antibiotics
genital herpes
lesions produced by the human papillomavirus (HPV) and transmitted through sexual contact; the lesions may be raised and bumpy, or flat and almost impossible to see
genital warts
causes damage to the female and male reproductive systems resulting in infertility; may remain undetected for long periods of time
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
viral disorder that causes deterioration of the immune system and eventually results in death due to
complicating infections that the body can no longer fight
Suggested Answers for Question 1
Researcher(s) Date of Study Method Used Major Findings Masters and
four phases of human sexual response. Men and women both go through the four phases but men have a refractory period that is not typically seen in women.
Alfred Kinsey 1948 one-on-one
personal interviews
sexual orientation was seen more along a continuum. Frequency of masturbation, premarital, and extramarital sex was much higher than many people previously behavior as well as sexual deviance, single people’s sexual behavior, marriage, divorce, and decisions to have children Answers for Question 2
chlamydia initial symptoms of a painless open sore that usually appears on the penis or around or in the vagina; if untreated, may go on to more advanced stages, including a transient rash and, eventually, serious involvement of the heart and central nervous system syphilis infection caused by the herpes simplex virus, which
causes a painful rash of fluid-filled blisters on the genitals
gonorrhea
affects the genitals of both sexes, causes burning or difficulty with urination, itching, and a yellow or green discharge; easily treated with antibiotics
genital herpes lesions produced by the human papillomavirus (HPV) and transmitted through sexual contact; the lesions may be raised and bumpy, or flat and almost impossible to see
genital warts
causes damage to the female and male reproductive systems resulting in infertility; may remain undetected for long periods of time
acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS) viral disorder that causes deterioration of the immune system and eventually results in death due to
complicating infections that the body can no longer fight
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
10.1 What are the physical differences between females and males?
10.2 What is gender, and how can biology and learning influence gender role
development?
10.3 How do gender roles develop, and how can they be influenced by stereotypes or an emphasis on androgyny?
10.4 How do men and women differ in thinking, social behavior, and personality?
10.5 What happens in the bodies of women and men during sexual intercourse?
10.6 What did the early and most recent surveys of human sexual behavior reveal?
10.7 How do different sexual orientations develop?
10.8 How do physical and psychological sexual problems differ?
10.9 What are sexually transmitted infections, and what can be done to prevent the spread of these disorders?
PRACTICE EXAM
For the following multiple choice questions, select the answer you feel best answers the question.
1. The growth spurt in female puberty usually starts at _______ years of age.
a) 8–10 b) 10–12 c) 12–14 d) 14–16
2. Which of the following is a primary sex characteristic in males?
a) facial and chest hair b) deepening voice
c) development of coarser skin texture d) the prostate gland
3. ________ is the process by which people learn their culture's preferences and expectations for proper "masculine" and "feminine" behavior.
a) Gender role b) Gender identity c) Gender typing d) Gender stereotyping
4. Whereas _____ can be defined as the physical characteristics of being female or male, ________ is defined as the psychological aspects of being feminine or masculine.
a) sex; gender
b) gender roles; gender identity c) gender typing; gender d) gender; sex
5. Traditional views of gender roles are more likely found in a) collectivist cultures.
b) individualistic cultures.
c) countries like the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, and England.
d) cultures where men have less traditional views.
6. If an individual’s gender identity was completely determined by the DNA he or she inherited, we would say that gender identity is determined by
a) nature.
b) nurture.
c) both nature and nurture.
d) the individual’s temperament.
7. When children observe their same-sex parents behaving in certain ways and imitate that behavior, a psychologist uses which theory to explain the situation?
a) Freudian psychoanalysis b) Piaget's theory of development c) gender schema theory
d) social learning theory
8. A child who develops her identity and organizes her behavior around a mental concept of “girl” is relying on
a) simple imitation.
b) positive reinforcement.
c) social pressures.
d) a gender schema.
9. Desperate for help with her computer, Dana calls her fiancé, thinking that he will know what to do because he is a man, and men are natural fixers. Dana's thinking in this instance is an example of
a) androgyny.
b) schema error.
c) benevolent sexism.
d) negative stereotyping.
10. Stereotypes about males and females consist of only negative characteristics.
a) True b) False
11. Psychologist Sandra Bem (1975, 1981) developed the concept of a) androgyny.
b) benevolent sexism.
c) social learning theory.
d) ambiguity.
12. MRI studies have suggested that men listen with a) the right hemisphere of the brain.
b) the left hemisphere of the brain.
c) both hemispheres of the brain.
d) no consistent pattern.
13. One difference that has been reported in the communication styles of men and women is that a) no differences have been found in communication styles.
b) men talk more than women.
c) men are more likely to switch topics frequently.
d) women are more likely to interrupt.
14. Approximately how many children in the United States are born with both male and female sex organs?
a) 1 out of 100 b) 1 out of 1,500 c) 1 out of 100,000
d) There are currently no estimates of the number.
15. The final phase of the sexual response is a) excitement.
b) plateau.
c) orgasm.
d) resolution.
16. The research of Masters and Johnson represents the first major contribution to our understanding of a) common sexual behaviors.
b) prevalence of sexually transmitted infections.
c) common sexual disorders.
d) the physical response during sexual activity.
17. One seemingly amazing aspect of Masters and Johnson's research program concerning human sexual response was
a) their ability to get senior citizens to volunteer as subjects in the first studies.
b) that the study was funded by churches open to discovering ways to prevent masturbation.
c) that they were able to convince the newspapers to keep the research secret for a long period of time.
d) their use of seismographic-like machines to measure the sexual response of volunteers.
18. The Kinsey Report, which was published in 1948 by Alfred Kinsey and reported on common sexual behaviors of adults in United States, was based on what type of research method?
a) direct observation b) anonymous surveys
c) experimental laboratory studies d) one-on-one personal interviews
19. According to Kinsey, what percentage of husbands reported anal sex with their wives?
a) 11 percent b) 14 percent c) 92 percent d) 26 percent
20. The first large-scale study of human behavior to be done after the Kinsey and Masters and Johnson reports was conducted by
a) Janus and Janus.
b) Hite and Rose.
c) Hilton and Paris.
d) Erickson and Schlomo.
21. According to the Janus report, ______ percent of men and ______ percent of women reported masturbating?
a) 80, 70 b) 80, 15 c) 70, 80 d) 15, 80
22. When a person refers to himself or herself as “heterosexual” or “homosexual,” the person is referring to his or her
a) sexual identity.
b) sex.
c) gender identity.
d) sexual orientation.
23. According to a recent study by Savic and colleagues, both homosexual men and ______ respond similarly to a testosterone-based pheromone (glandular chemical).
a) heterosexual women b) heterosexual men c) homosexual women
d) None of the above. The pheromone-related response of homosexual men is unique.
24. Jaime enjoys sexual activity with his partner. However, he cannot reach an orgasm during sexual intercourse even though fully aroused. Jaime is suffering from
a) male erectile disorder.
b) male orgasmic disorder.
c) dyspareunia.
d) premature ejaculation.
25. Jennie experiences persistent contractions of her vaginal muscles. These contractions cause intercourse to be painful and sometimes even impossible for Jennie. She likely has a condition known as
a) vaginismus.
b) frotteurism.
c) female orgasmic disorder.
d) sexual diversion disorder.
26. ______________ is a disorder in which an individual achieves sexual arousal and fulfillment through sexual behavior that is unusual or not socially acceptable.
a) Schizophrenia
b) Borderline personality disorder c) Gender identity disorder d) Paraphilia
27. Which cause of a sexually transmitted infection is hardest to treat?
a) bacterial b) fungal c) viral
d) All are equally difficult to treat.
28. AIDS can be passed from one individual to the next through each of the following ways EXCEPT a) vaginal fluid.
b) semen.
c) tears.
d) blood.
29. AIDS is caused by
a) a bacterial infection.
b) an air-borne fungus.
c) a viral infection.
d) The cause is not yet known.
30. Which cause of a sexually transmitted disease is hardest to treat?
a) bacterial b) fungal c) viral
d) all are equally difficult to treat
PRACTICE EXAM ANSWERS
1. b The female growth spurt starts about age 10–12, while the male growth spurt starts about age 12–14.
2. d The prostate gland is a primary sex characteristic in males.
3. c Gender typing is the process of learning proper masculine and feminine behaviors.
Gender roles are the actual expectations each culture has for males and females, and gender identity is the individuals’ sense of being male or female.
4. a Sex refers to physical differences, and gender refers to psychological and social differences.
5. a Several research studies have supported the idea that collectivist cultures, such as those found in many Asian and South American countries, display more traditional views on gender roles.
6. a Nature refers to inherited, biological differences, while nurture refers to the effects of the environment.
7. d Social learning theory emphasizes observational learning, which is reinforced through attention and positive remarks.
8. d A gender schema is a mental concept of what it means to be a “boy” or a “girl.”
9. c Benevolent sexism is the result of thinking that all men or all women have some particular desirable trait, simply because of their sex.
9. c Benevolent sexism is the result of thinking that all men or all women have some particular desirable trait, simply because of their sex.