Ramose (2002) describes a comprehensive conception of Ubuntu – a notion that exists in many Bantu languages. For him, Ubuntu could be perceived in terms of three maxims: “The first maxim means that to be human is to affirm one’s humanity by recognizing the humanity of others and, on that basis, establish respectful human relations with them …. “the second maxim means that if and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth and the preservation of the life of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of life”. The third maxim is a “principle
approaching knowledge from a Eurocentric perspective, together with certain mainstream assumptions applied to information in the West, has led to injustices and inadequacies in meeting the needs of African people – here meaning indigenous black Africans and those in the African Diaspora. The Afrocentric paradigm therefore seeks to discover and interpret information through African eyes, utilising it in ways that ensure benefits for Africans (Mapaure, 2011: 159-160; Van Binsbergen, 2002: 4).
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deeply embedded in traditional African political philosophy”, which says “that the king owed his status, including all the powers associated with it, to the will of the people under him” (Ramose, 2002, 324-325). This implies that the concept of Ubuntu is a personified way of life – a word with no English equivalent.
The first designation means “a person is a person through other persons”, which is the meaning of the Zulu maxim, “umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” (Ramose, 1999: 49). This shows how the being of an African person is not only embedded in the community, but in the universe as a whole. This is articulated mainly in the prefix ubu- of the word Ubuntu, which, refers to the universe as being enfolded, containing everything. The stem -ntu means the process of life as the unfolding of the universe by concrete manifestations in different forms and modes of being. This process includes the emergence of the speaking and knowing human being (Ramose, 2002: 325). As such, this being is called umuntu or, in the Northern Sotho language, motho – one who is able by common endeavours to articulate the experience and knowledge of what ubu is. Thus, -ntu stands for the epistemological side of “being”. This is the wider horizon, in which the intersubjective aspects of Ubuntu should be seen. Mutual recognition and respect in the different intersubjective relations are parts of the process of unfolding of the universe, which encompasses everything in the speaking and knowing of human beings. In the main, Ubuntu as a philosophical concept is associated with the being of a person, which is determined by his or her association with other persons in intersubjective community.
Ramose (2002: 325) underlines the oneness and wholeness of this on-going establishment of community. One can surmise that the oneness of African philosophy is perceivable in the plurality of its voices, and that no voice should be disregarded in the whole community of engagement. In particular, the notion of Ubuntu underlies the communalism by which the African community is characterised. For Ramose, the meaning of Ubuntu indicates that there is an elevated judgment of the community in African thought and practice, which is greater than that of the individual, but that, does not take place at the expense of overlooking the individuality of the person. A person is a person in the community, and his or her individuality is exercised through others in that community.
This attests to a culture of mutual relations, of caring for one another and sharing with one another.
The notion is not only expressed in African languages; it is also practised by talking to one another in dialogue – in this case in AHE. One therefore could infer that Ubuntu clearly exhibits an opportunity for inclusion, that is, one in which everyone (women and men) is included in deliberation. If it is correct that AHE upholds Ubuntu, then no one is supposed to be excluded and their voices will be heard in policy and decision making. The point is that the underlying principle of Ubuntu emphasises a community in which every member is included and in which each of their voices is heard. Although there might be some disagreement between members, for instance in
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the AHE community, each member could depend on other members of the community for sustenance and support.
Furthermore, Tutu (1999, pp. 34-35) underscores the significance of Ubuntu as inclusion as follows:
Ubuntu is very difficult to render into a Western language. It speaks to the very essence of being human. When you want to give high praise to someone we say,
‘Yu, u Nobuntu’; he or she has Ubuntu. This means that they are generous, hospitable, friendly, caring and compassionate. They share what they have. It also means that my humanity is caught up, is inextricably bound up, in theirs. We belong in a bundle of life. We say, ‘a person is a person through other people’ (in Xhosa Ubuntu ungamuntu ngabanye abantu and in Zulu Umuntu ngumuntu ngabanye). I am human because I belong, I participate, and I share. A person with Ubuntu is open and available to others, affirming of others, does not feel threatened that others are able and good, for he or she has a proper self-assurance that comes from knowing that he or she belongs in a greater whole and is diminished when others are humiliated or diminished, when others are tortured or oppressed, treated as if they were less than who they are.
The citation above implies that Ubuntu as a way of life is unique to African thought and practices, which implies that AHE cannot be dismissive of the concept, specifically as it regards the inclusion of women. The concept of “I belong, I participate and I share” could be said to underscore what it means to cultivate an inclusive environment. Again, the phrase “a person is a person through other people” assumes that, when some people are excluded and mistreated, others should act to address the problem. In other words, when women, for instance, are humiliated or oppressed, they are regarded inhumanely, and this points to the absence of Ubuntu in the practice. In addition, Wiredu (2004) points out that an African philosophy of Ubuntu as inclusion cannot be articulated without any reference to what it means for a person, specifically an African – whether a man or woman – to be educated. For Wiredu, African higher educational discourses need to shape human action in a way that is comparable with and analogous to its fundamental ideas, meanings and practice (in this case Ubuntu) within its context, that is, Africa. No doubt an educated person upholds reasonable knowledge of her culture and environment, and demonstrates the ability to construct and articulate justifiable arguments. In other words, if African people’s way of life is constituted by Ubuntu, their customs and practices should manifest such values. Thus, AHE ought to act out the democratic element of Ubuntu, that is, inclusion, in which all are acknowledged as equal members of the same community. By so doing, all students nurtured in such institutions
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would be able to engage in deliberations and offer reasons why women and other marginalised groups are excluded and treated unequally.
In response to the aforesaid, Wiredu (1996) explains further that, since African philosophy is a form of analytical inquiry, Ubuntu should aim at reformulating and shaping the current African polity (including that of higher education) on the basis of consensus, negotiation and reconciliation.
Taking into consideration the above view and the practice of Ubuntu in AHE, everyone (women and men) should engage in discussions and negotiations about issues of concern in order to reach consensus without disregarding those views that seem under-developed. As a consequence, in that environment, women could be included and their points of view recognised, since people engaging in dialogue presumably subscribe to Ubuntu. Nonetheless, Maathai (2009) asserts that women’s exclusion is due in particular to the elongated colonial ideology and patriarchal system that perceives a woman as inferior and as someone who may not be treated equally in relation to men. I contend strongly that, in the absence of a legitimate form of Ubuntu in HE in Africa, the exclusion of women will continue to permeate post-colonial education practices.
To accentuate the analytical aspect of African philosophy, Appiah (1996) asserts that Ubuntu should evaluate arguments relative to a particular culture, and that such arguments relate to Africa's intellectual heritage. He notes further that Ubuntu may create possibilities for African people to “understand each other as reasonable” individuals who are determined to treat one another with respect within a community of practice (Appiah, 1996: 134). This implies that Ubuntu should not be regarded as a faultless worldview, but as a concept with merit that could be explored in order to assist in recognising others as reasonable. As such, no educational institution in Africa could claim to practise Ubuntu without affording equal space to all to contribute reasonably to all pressing issues. Thus, Appiah's notion of recognising others as reasonable beings should be at the centre of Ubuntu as an inclusive philosophy in African societies, including in the HE community.
However, since some people (mainly women) are often excluded, the practice of Ubuntu as inclusion requires further scrutiny and expansion. Appiah’s call for a critical reflection on our understanding and practice of fundamental concepts such as Ubuntu in order to bring about change in the educational community of engagement makes sense (Appiah, 1996: 135). One would support the call for a critical engagement with and reflection on the concept, as it could help to address the problem of the absence of Ubuntu in African educational institutions, which has led to the exclusion of women. Equally, Letseka (in Waghid, 2011a: 240) regards boto or Ubuntu “as normative in that it encapsulates moral norms and virtues such as kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy, and respect and concern for others”. The idea of respect and concern for others is more profound and implies the inclusion of all, because even those who seem to experience some exclusion are considered. More recently, Waghid and Smeyers (2012: 6-7) have affirmed that Ubuntu as an African philosophy represents a form of human activity that can
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create space in higher education in which all (women, men and other groups) can freely engage with one another deliberatively through practices and shared values such as Ubuntu.
At the same time, everyone can engage in critical conversations by interrogating and contesting their views and experiences. Waghid and Smeyers (2012) seem to argue that, with the embodiment and practice of Ubuntu in HE, everyone’s voice and experience would be listened to and respected. This simply means that no one should be excluded, as women and men ought to co-exist as equal persons. Nevertheless, one’s concern about the practice of Ubuntu in relation to women’s exclusion seems to bring the potentiality of the concept into disrepute. In my view, if the notion of respect for all human beings is a main constituent of Ubuntu, one could argue that the exclusion of women from AHE is indicative of a lack of human interdependence. Acknowledging the inclusion of all participants (women and men) as equal members in HE is one way of showing respect. To include is to respect people's dignity, not only because they are women or men, but because they are human beings. Thus, creating space in which everyone can engage with one another in a humane manner is equivalent to recognising their rights to share in a communal practice in higher educational institutions. Affording women the opportunity to be included would unlock their cognitive and intellectual ability to express themselves freely within an enabling environment, and justify democratic HE in Africa.
With reference to Waghid and Smeyers (2012: 6), educational institutions on the African continent ought to become concerned especially with cultivating Ubuntu as respect for persons in terms of which everyone – women, men and others – deliberate freely in a humane and communally engaging manner. This implies that these educational institutions need to be concerned with creating democratic and responsible citizens and future leaders who are attenuated to the humane practice of Ubuntu. More importantly, through its commitment to educating people for humanity, a postcolonial AHE would propel its task of nurturing citizens in an inclusive, respected and valued environment. In relation to the concern whether Ubuntu is indeed prevalent in AHE, Assié-Lumumba’s perception of Ubuntu will be examined as a way of ascertaining its existence and efforts to create spaces for women.