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The fruit is an oval, ovoid or subglobose drupe, with or without peduncle.

The fruit contains an embryo encased in a seed coat that is surrounded by a thin seed sac or pericarp, all of which is enclosed in the hypanthium (fl eshy portion of the fruit). The shape and colour of the fruits vary. Length between 3.5 and 11 mm and diameter up to 8.8 mm. The colour varies from yellow or bright orange to reddish orange or brownish orange. The content of carotenoids is higher in reddish-orange fruits. The fruits are easily crushed. The seed is oblong, smooth, shiny, with a longitudinal fur-row, colour ranges from light or dark brown to nearly black. The average weight of 100 seeds is 1.6–2.1 g, and that of 100 berries is 57–96 g. Harvest-ing by removHarvest-ing the pedicel from the fruit, rips the epidermis, exposes fruit fl esh and results in loss of juice from the fruit (4, 9, 33–35).

Organoleptic properties

Odour: light and pleasant; taste: acid, pineapple-like (9, 33, 34, 36).

Microscopic characteristics

The hypanthium, a false fruit, consists of epicarp and mesocarp. The epi-carp has polygonal or polygonal-oval cells with straight irregularly thick-ened walls and it is confl uent with the exterior of the peduncle. The

epider-mis has corymb-like trichomes characteristic for the Elaeagnaceae. The corymb-like trichomes have a continuous multicellular disc with ray-ser-rate edge and a multicellular stalk. The trichome stalk consists of 6–8 radial cells, which surround one or a few (2–4) smaller cells; there are numerous solitary stalks after detaching of the broken corymb-like disc. Multicellular stalks are visible through the transparent corymbs. The mesocarp of rip-ened fruit is liquefi ed. It represents a mixture of entire cells, cytoplasm, oil droplets, chromoplasts and chaotic vascular bundles. The calyx of the fruit is slightly open. There are hairs in the calyx opening, in the seed cavity and on the tail of the seed sac. The peduncle has an epidermis with corymb-like trichomes and external thick-walled cells, cortical parenchyma with scler-enchymatic cells and some primary vascular bundles arranged in circles.

The achene, the true fruit, usually known as the “seed”, consists of tegument, perisperm and endosperm. The tegument is formed by thick-walled palisade cells, perpendicularly arranged on 2–3 layers of com-pressed parenchyma. The perisperm consists of 3–4 layers of comcom-pressed small thin-walled cells. Endosperm is a range of cells containing aleurone.

The palisade cells of the cotyledons contain oil and aleurone (2, 37, 38).

Powdered plant material Not applicable to fresh berries.

General identity tests

Macroscopic and microscopic examinations, chemical analysis and thin-layer chromatography tests for the characteristic constituents, isorham-netin and quercetin (39). Flavonoids may be rapidly determined by capil-lary zone electrophoresis (40).

Purity tests

Tests for specifi c microorganisms and microbial contamination limits are as described in the WHO guidelines on quality control methods for me-dicinal plant materials (41).

Chemical

A chromatographic analytical method has been described (42).

Foreign organic matter

Not more than 1% fragments of stems and other parts of plant. Not more than 1% of unripe berries. Not more than 2% of fruits damaged by

ver-min. Not more than 35% of bruised fruits if the juice is not lost (1, 2). Not more than 4% in dried fruits (39).

Total ash

Not more than 1% (1). Not more than 6% in dried fruits (39).

Acid-insoluble ash

No information available on fresh fruits. Not more than 3% in dried fruits (39).

Sulfated ash

No information available on fresh fruits. Not less than 25% in dried fruits (39).

Water-soluble extractive No information available.

Alcohol-soluble extractive No information available.

Loss on drying

Not more than 87% (1).

Pesticide residues

The recommended maximum sum limit of aldrin and dieldrin is not more than 0.05 mg/kg (43). For other pesticides, see the European pharmaco-poeia (43) and the WHO guidelines on quality control methods for me-dicinal plant materials (41) and pesticide residues (44).

Heavy metals

For maximum limits and analysis of heavy metals, consult the WHO guidelines on quality control methods for medicinal plant materials (41).

Radioactive residues

Where applicable, consult the WHO guidelines on quality control meth-ods for medicinal plant materials (41) for the analysis of radioactive iso-topes.

Other purity tests

Content of mineral matter not more than 0.5%. Content of acids in the fruits not more than 3% (1, 2). Chemical, sulfated ash, and water-soluble

extractive tests are to be established in accordance with national require-ments.

Chemical assays

Contains not less than 10 mg% of total carotenoids expressed as β-carotene (1, 2). Not less than 1.5% of total fl avonoids, calculated as rutin, based on the dried drug; not less than 0.10% of isorhamnetin, calculated for the dried drug (39).

Major chemical constituents

Vitamins and related compounds are the major biologically active con-stituents. Among these are carotenoids (0.04–0.1%, β- and γ-carotene to-gether with lycopene, zeaxanthine and others), vitamin C (0.2–1.4%), vi-tamins of the B group (0.1–0.16%), tocopherols and tocotrienols. Other signifi cant constituents are fl avonoids (especially kaempferol, isorhamne-tin, rutin and catechin, as well as quercetin tri- and tetra-glycosides). The fatty oil (in seeds commonly about 10% and up to 15–16%), consists of triglycerides rich in the two fatty acids, linoleic and α-linolenic acid; oth-er glycoth-erides include 1,3-decapryloyl-2-linoleyglycoth-erol; othoth-er major fatty acids are oleic, palmitic, stearic and vaccenic acids). The fruits also contain sterols (up to 0.2% in seeds and 0.04% in soft parts, mainly β-sitosterol), tannins (hippophaenin A and B), fruit acids (chiefl y malic acid), the sugar alcohols: mannitol, inositol and quebrachitol. Minerals present include selenium, zinc, calcium, iron, manganese, potassium, sodium, phospho-rus, boron and copper, among others (4, 8, 22, 23, 25, 34, 46–53). The structures of the characteristic constituents are presented below.

betacarotene

lycopene

H3C

C H3

CH3 C H3 C H3 CH3

C H3 C H3

C H3

CH3

CH3

CH3 C H3

C H3

H3C C H3 CH3

H₃C

H3C C H3

Medicinal uses

Uses supported by clinical data

The fruits of Hippophaë rhamnoides are used in the treatment of cirrhosis of the liver (54).

Uses described in pharmacopoeias and well established documents The fruits of Hippophaë rhamnoides are used to relieve cough with pro-fuse expectoration, to promote digestion in people with prolonged gas-trointestinal transit with abdominal pain, and for treatment of amenor-rhoea (39). Fruit decoctions are used externally as a wash to treat traumatic swelling and cutaneous eruptions (21).

Uses described in traditional medicine

In the Islamic Republic of Iran, ethanol extracts of Hippophaë fruits are used internally as an astringent and anthelminthic. There are data on the use of dried fruits in patients with scurvy. Hippophaë fruits have been used extensively in India and Tibet for the treatment of circulatory disor-ders, ischaemic heart disease and hepatic injury (55, 56).

Pharmacology

Experimental pharmacology

Antioxidant, radioprotective and immunomodulatory activities The effects of an extract from fresh H. rhamnoides fruits and of vitamin E (positive control) against nicotine-induced oxidative stress were assessed in vitro in rat blood. Alterations in erythrocyte malondialdehyde levels, activity of some erythrocyte antioxidant enzymes, and plasma levels of vitamins E and A were determined. Groups of eight rats each were treated with: nicotine (0.5 mg/kg/day, administered intraperitoneally); nicotine + vitamin E (75 mg/kg/day, administered intragastrically); nicotine + ex-tract (1 ml/kg/day, administered intragastrically); and a control group re-ceived no treatment. It was observed that nicotine-induced increase of malondialdehyde levels was prevented by the extract and by vitamin E.

Nicotine-induced decrease in superoxide dismutase activity was prevent-ed by the extract, but not by vitamin E. Glutathione activity was higher in the group of rats given the extract. These results suggest that extracts of H. rhamnoides may prevent nicotine-induced oxidative stress (57). The effect of an ethanol extract of Hippophaë fruits on radiation and chemical oxidant-mediated DNA damage was evaluated. Antioxidant activity was assessed using 2-deoxyribose degradation and 2,2-bipiridyl assays in mice. Both the in vitro and ex vivo samples were exposed to gamma