Montpellier broom, French broom, soft broom Cytisus racemosus Hort.-Cf. Marnock
Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link (Genista scoparia Lam.; Sarothamnus scoparius (L.) W.D.J. Koch; Spartium scoparium L.) – Scotch broom, common broom, yellow broom, giesta, retama de escobas Cytisus spp. – brooms
Genista linifolia L. (Cytisus linifolius Lam.; Teline linifolia (L.) Webb
et Berth.) – fl ax-leaved broom
Genista tinctoria L. – dyer’s broom, dyer’s greenweed
Spartium junceum L. (Genista juncea Scop.; G. odorata Moench; Spartianthus junceus Link.) – Spanish broom, weaver’s broom, retama, ginestra
The complex group of ‘brooms’, which are common weeds and gar- den plants in many parts of the world, attracted attention from people like ourselves when it was discovered that C. canariensis, an introduced plant to Mexico, was being smoked by at least one Yaqui shaman as a shaman- ic inebriant. The shaman interviewed in the original study claimed that he was instructed to smoke the fl owers by a ‘plant teacher’ whilst in a trance. The fl owers were prepared by ageing them for 10 days packed in a sterile, sealed glass jar, before being dried and smoked. During this ageing proc- ess, the fl owers were not allowed to ferment or become mouldy, yet I have found it diffi cult to prevent such decompositions. Yaqui shamans may also prepare a drink from the seed capsules to facilitate divination, healing and time travel (Emboden 1979a; Fadiman 1965; Rätsch 1992; Schultes 1966). In Ecuador, dried fl owers of S. junceum are smoked to treat asth- ma, and the root is infused to procure abortion (Schultes & Raffauf 1990). In Tuscany, Italy, stems of the wild plant are burned on Christmas eve to prevent the ‘evil eye’ and bring good omens (Pieroni & Giusti 2002).
Brooms get their collective name from the fact that they have been used to make brooms, due to their strong and fl exible branches. In medi- aeval times, the fl owering plants were sometimes featured in heraldry. At one time, broom seeds were used as a coffee substitute [see Coffea], and the fl owers pickled in wine. Perhaps more important was the widespread European use of young, green fl owering tops [or occasionally the seeds] in beer brewing [see Methods of Ingestion], to render the drink more bitter and intoxicating. In European folk medicine, the fl owers have been decocted as an aphrodisiac, and used to make a dye. The herbage was utilised in tanning leather, due to its tannin content. Medicinally, the plants have been used to treat heart, kidney and bladder problems, as well as rheuma- tism. The actions of the herb on the body in low doses are diuretic, purga- tive and weakly cardioactive; in moderate doses, they are ‘narcotic’, caus- ing ‘inebriation, staggering gait, and impaired vision’, fi rst with excitation, and later stupefaction; higher doses cause GI pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, sweating, and if unlucky, death by asphyxiation (Bremness 1988, 1994; Buhner 1998; Chopra et al. 1965; Rätsch 1992; Turner & Szczawinski 1991). C. proliferus is intoxicating to horses when fruiting, and C. scopar- ius has been toxic to sheep (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Experiments have been carried out to examine the effects of the pre- pared, dried fl owers when smoked. Subjective effects noted consisted of relaxation and a feeling of well-being; when more than one cigarette was smoked by subjects, a greater level of arousal was experienced, accompa- nied by mental clarity, and in some cases, greater appreciation of colour and contrast; some subjects also noted closed-eye imagery. C. canarien- sis was said to be the most pleasant and effective, with C. scoparius and S. junceum being less effective (Fadiman 1965). In my own experience, C. canariensis [as C. monspessulanus], C. racemosus and G. linifolia were +- equal in their mild effects.
The activity of the brooms is usually thought to be solely attributa- ble to their cytisine content. However, as well as the other alkaloids, non- alkaloidal constituents such as fl avonoids may also possibly contribute to overall activity.
In general, brooms contain quinolizidine alkaloids, such as cytisine, N-methylcytisine, sparteine, lupanine, anagyrine and many others. They should only be taken internally with caution due to their toxic nature. Sparteine, for example, has a similar action to coniine [see Conium], but is less toxic, and has little psychotropic activity, apart from CNS depres- sion; it can paralyse motor nerves and sympathetic ganglia, as well as de- pressing the heart in large doses. Smaller doses stimulate heart action [see also Lupinus, Sophora] (Buhner 1998; Henry 1939; Nucifora & Malone 1971; Schmeller et al. 1994). Genistein, a fl avonoid commonly found in Fabaceous legumes, has shown MAOI properties (Hatano et al. 1991), and is oestrogenic (Harborne & Baxter ed. 1993).
C. canariensis has been found to contain cytisine, N-methylcytisine, sparteine, lupanine, anagyrine, and other alkaloids (Harborne et al. ed.
1971; International... 1994).
C. proliferus seeds yielded 0.55% alkaloids, containing c.10% dl-cal- ycotomine [6,7-dimethoxy-1-OH-methyl-THIQ], as well as other alka- loids, including sparteine (White 1957).
C. scoparius seeds yielded 0.5-0.6% alkaloids, including lupanine as a major component, as well as hydroxylupanine and traces of sparteine (White 1957). Flowers have yielded 2% amines, such as L-DOPA, do-
pamine, tyramine and epinine; branches have yielded 0.5-1% alkaloids,
c.60% of which was sparteine, as well as 17-oxo-sparteine and lupanine; the plant has also been shown to yield the tetrahydroisoquinoline salso- lidine [6,7-dimethoxy-1-methyl-THIQ; MAOI (Bembenek et al. 1990)]. Terpenoids, and fl avonoids such as chrysin [MAOI (Sloley et al. 2000); see Passifl ora], genistein, quercetin and vitexin are also found, particu- larly in the fl owers. Alkaloid concentration reaches a maximum in winter (Bruneton 1995; Harborne et al. ed. 1971; Henry 1939; International… 1994; Smith 1975; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Seed alkaloid content was found to be highest [over 1%] in March; the seeds are generally the most concentrated in alkaloids (Chopra et al. 1965).
G. linifolia seeds have yielded c.1% cytisine; pods yielded 0.08% cy-
tisine. Stems and leaves yielded 1.2-1.3% alkaloids in Feb., 0.64% alka-
loids in May, 0.99% in Jul.; stems and leaves separately [harv. May] yield- ed 0.81% and 1.24% alkaloids, respectively. This consisted of c.70% an- agyrine (White 1944b).
S. junceum has been reported to contain sparteine in fl owers [c.0.22%] and the rest of the plant [c.0.02%]. However, plants growing in New Zealand were found to contain no sparteine above the detection lim- it [0.02%] in tops, young shoots, petals, stamens, and seeds; instead, cy-
tisine was found in stems and leaves [0.09%], petals [0.29%], other fl ow-
er parts combined [0.36%], and seeds [1.24%]. This species is regard- ed as being more potent than C. scoparius; “serious poisoning” has been reported from an ingestion of as little as 6g dry plant material (White 1943a).
Cytisus canariensis is an erect, evergreen shrub 1-2(-3)m tall; stems erect, woody, ridged, softly hairy, usually one main stem with numerous branches. Leaves alternate, shortly stalked, trifoliate; leafl ets entire, obo- vate, hairy on lower surface, less so on upper, middle leafl et 5-30mm long (can be to 40mm on young growth), the others shorter. Flowers bright yellow, pea-like, c.1.2cm long, shortly stalked, occurring singly or in clus- ters of up to 9 in leaf axils and terminally; calyx bilabiate; corolla lobes short, upper 2 free or slightly connate, lower 3 connate into a 3-lobed lip, standard ovate, wings oblong, keel petals oblong, slightly incurved, swol- len at sides, claws of wings and keel petals usually adnate to the stami- nal tube; stamens 10, monadelphous; anthers alternately short and versa- tile, long and basifi xed. Ovary sessile, 2-many-ovuled; style apex incurved; stigma capitate, terminal. Fruit a brown or black silky pod, linear-oblong, 2-valved, non-septate, 2.5 x 0.5cm, coiled after release of seeds; seeds 5- 8, dark brown to black, rounded and fl attened, 2mm diameter, smooth, shiny. Fl. late winter-spring, sometimes in late summer.
Native to Mediterranean region; a weed in west coast N. America, Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia, Chile and forests of S. Africa.
Hardy and drought-resistant, brooms may be cultivated by seed or cutting; seeds should be nicked and soaked until swollen before plant- ing. Do not transplant until older; or, plant seeds where they are to grow. Grow in well-drained soil with full sun; often does not fl ower until 2 years old (Allen & Allen 1981; Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). Should not be cultivated in many places due to its great invasive potential (pers. obs.).
For medicine, aerial parts are usually gathered before fl owering; for psychotropic use, the fl ower buds are gathered.
DATURA
(Solanaceae)
Datura ceratocaula Ortega (D. macrocaulis Roth.; D. sinuata Sessé
et Moc.; Apemon crassecaule Raf.) – tlápatl, nexehuac, tornaloco,
atlinan, ‘sister of ololuiqui’ [see Turbina] Datura discolor Bernh.
Datura ferox L. (Stramonium ferox Boccone) – fi erce thornapple, long- spine thornapple
Datura inoxia Miller (D. guayaquilensis H.B.K.; D. lanosa Barcley
ex Bye; D. metel Dunal non L. (Sims non L.); D. meteloides DC ex Dunal) – downy thornapple, a’neglakya, toloache, tolohuaxihuatl,
dekuba, wichuri, peyote, tikúwari, tokhu
Datura leichhardtii F. Muell. ex Benth. (D. pruinosa Greenman) – native thornapple [Australia]
Datura metel L. (D. alba Nees ex Eisenb.; D. cornucopaea Hort. ex W.W.; D. fastuosa L.) – tatorah, datora, jous-matehl, dhustura, unmata, dhatura, dutra, chocho wah, bhakli wah, chosen asago [‘Korean morning beauty’], man t’o-lo, mehen-x-tokhu, mondzo
Datura quercifolia H.B.K. (D. stramonium ssp. quercifolia (H.B.K.)
T H E P L A N T S A N D A N I M A L S T H E G A R D E N O F E D E N
Datura stramonium L. (D. bertolonii Parl. ex Guss.; D. inermis Jacq.; D. laevis L. f.; D. tatula L.) – common thornapple, jimsonweed, Jamestown weed, toloache, toloatzin, nacazul, wichuri, uchiri, dekuba, kieli-sa, chamico, hierba del diablo, miayu, miyaya, ?ama’y mushtak, mehen-x-tokhu, hexenkraut, hexenkümmel, sekle wah
Datura wrightii Regel ex Bye (D. meteloides Dunal) – hairy thornapple
Datura spp. – thornapple, dhaturo
Few plants have acquired such a fearsome reputation as those grouped under the genus Datura, which bear a huge testimony of written lore. Given the enormity of the literature regarding this genus, the following can only be seen as a general summary. Overall, it could be said that Datura spp. are known largely for their reputed use in European witch- es potions and ‘fl ying ointments’ (Rudgley 1995; Schultes & Hofmann 1992).
The ancient Sao culture of Chad have been hypothesised to have smoked D. metel in pipes, though there is no conclusive evidence to sup- port this (De Smet 1998). D. metel was recorded to have been used as a narcotic inebriant by the Arabs by c.1000AD; it was also acknowledged that the plant could be deadly in higher doses. In Morocco, D. stramo- nium is used as an inebriant alone, or as 6 fl owers added to coffee [see Coffea]. Datura has long been commonly used in India and Nepal [gen- erally as D. metel], where it is sacred to Shiva – as such, it is smoked by saddhus and others with Cannabis as a sacramental aphrodisiac and an aid to raising the kundalini-energy [see Infl uencing Endogenous Chemistry], particularly in tantric yoga. It has a long history of use in tantric sorcery, and has also been added to alcoholic beverages to make them more po- tent. It is sometimes used to fortify ‘bhang’ [see Cannabis]. Nepalese shamans use Datura spp. seeds for shamanic travel, and to treat insani- ty; for the latter, the Kirati prescribe 1 seed each of D. metel, D. stramo- nium and D. metel var. fastuosa, with the dose of each increased to 2-3 seeds for the next day or two. Its Sanskrit names, ‘dhustura’ or ‘unmata’, mean ‘divine craziness’. The seeds have been used by Kali-devotees for criminal purposes, presumably homicidal poisoning. Others use the seeds to stupefy a victim in order to rob them or otherwise take advantage. D. stramonium has been used in Indian medicine to treat mental disorders, fevers, headache, rheumatism, epilepsy, asthma, diarrhoea, infl ammation and opium poisoning [see Papaver] (Mehra 1979; Müller-Ebeling et al. 2002; Nadkarni 1976; Ott 1993; Rätsch 1990, 1992; Schultes & Hofmann 1980, 1992; Siklós 1993).
Although indigenous Australians have not been reported to use their native Datura spp. as drugs, some refer to D. leichhardtii as a ‘cheeky bug- ger’ [meaning that it has toxic properties], indicating some knowledge of its effects. In the 19th century, inhabitants of Norfolk Island were report- ed to eat D. stramonium seeds “to invoke temporary or permanent insan- ity” (Low 1990).
In China, fl owers [‘yang-jin-hua’] and seeds of D. metel have been taken internally to treat nervous disorders and colds, and externally for skin eruptions and infections. Combined with Cannabis in wine, D. me- tel was used as an anaesthetic for minor operations; the inebriating prop- erties of the plant were also well-known (Li 1978). In Haiti and Jamaica, Datura spp. are known as ‘concombre zombi’ [‘zombi cucumber’], and are used as an aphrodisiac and medicine by healers. In Haiti, the plant is sometimes an ingredient in the ‘antidote’ administered to new zombis when they are dug up from their fresh graves, and also afterwards to keep them enslaved [see Methods of Ingestion] (Davis 1988a; Rätsch 1992). This may explain why zombis are traditionally said to die when given salt, as sweating is reduced in Datura poisoning (theobromus pers. comm.).
Datura spp. leaves are smoked in gourd pipes in e. Africa to produce inebriation, and in tropical w. Africa the plants are used to strengthen na- tive beers and palm wines [see Methods of Ingestion]. Leaves of D. metel are used for this purpose in Tanzania. Amongst the Fulani, a D. metel seed de- coction is given to boys “to incite them in the Sharo contest or ordeal of manhood” (De Smet 1998). Datura spp. may also be used as sacred in- ebriants by Kunama women of north-east Africa. D. metel is known to be consumed in the fi nal stages of female puberty initiation rites, by the Shagana-Tsonga of n. Transvaal, to induce contact with ancestral fertility spirits so that sexual fertility is ensured. In west and central Africa, D. me- tel is also used as an inebriant, and for divination on criminal matters. In some parts of Africa, schoolboys initiate one another with the administra- tion of an inebriating dose of Datura sp. seeds [‘langboontije’] (Johnston 1972; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1932, 1962).
In S. America, the use of Datura spp. seems to be largely replaced by Brugmansia [once classifi ed under the genus Datura], though D. stra- monium has been claimed to be an ingredient of the mysterious ‘cimora’ potion based on Trichocereus pachanoi [see Trichocereus for further discussion] in Peru (Schultes 1967a). Even though ‘cimora’ may not ac- tually exist as the name for such a beverage, rather being a term used for a variety of plants (Davis 1983), D. stramonium [as ‘chamico’] might still be added to T. pachanoi brews in Peru (Rätsch 1998). Also, the Mapuche of Chile use D. stramonium and/or another Datura sp. as a ‘narcotic’, and administer the seeds to ‘unruly children’ (Plowman et al. 1971). D.
stramonium has been reported as one of the 4 major visionary plants of the Mapuche [see also Latua, Lobelia and Ovidia pillopillo in Endnotes] (Rätsch 2001).
The Aztecs used Datura spp. as analgesics, and called D. ceratocau- la ‘tlapatl’. Species such as D. ceratocaula, D. inoxia, D. metel and D. stramonium are still used in Mexico as local analgesics and stupefacients. D. inoxia is also used in sorcery and as an anaphrodisiac, and is known in some areas of Mexico as ‘peyote’ [see Lophophora]. D. stramonium is also used in sorcery and as an anaphrodisiac, antiasthmatic, expecto- rant, antipyretic, and poultice for wounds and skin conditions. D. inox- ia root has been used by Zuñi shamans of New Mexico to ‘render the pa- tient unconscious’ for performing operations; they may also put the pow- dered root into their eyes or chew the root for shamanic purposes. The plant may be decocted and drunk, or made into an ointment and rubbed on the body. Datura spp. have long been used for divination and healing by Mexican shamans, and the Maya, Tarahumara and Mixe still practice their use. The Mixe administer 27 seeds for a man, and 21 for a woman, for divination at night. Mayan shamans in the Yucatan eat 10-30 Datura seeds and concentrate on a crystal to divine; they also smoke the fl ow- ers as an aphrodisiac, and offer them to the gods. Still, shamans prefer to use these plants only in diffi cult cases. Most Yucateo and Lacandon Maya will not handle the plants [usually D. stramonium or the intro- duced D. inoxia] unless necessary, and then only for medicinal use. Such use is external, except in the case of nightmares, where a leaf or root tea may be given. The Naja Lacandon know Datura spp. as ‘ts’ak tsimin’ [‘medicine of the wind/thunder beasts’]; they are regarded as only being used by ‘evil’ shamans, and many Maya say the plants emit the ‘smell of death’, referring to their noxious odour. On a more casual note, Datura spp. are sometimes added to the fermented maize drink ‘tesguino’ [see also ‘chicha’, in Methods of Ingestion], and to mezcal [see also ‘pulqué’, in
Methods of Ingestion], to increase their potency (Bye 1979b; Diaz 1979;
Furst 1976; Lipp 1990; Litzinger 1994; Ott 1993; Rätsch 1990, 1992, 1999a; Schultes 1937a, 1937b, 1979).
N. American natives north of Mexico have also made widespread use of the available Datura spp. The Luiseño and other tribal groups of south- ern California used the infused root of D. inoxia [‘toloache’] in male pu- berty initiation rites; every male in their group must consume it once in his lifetime, to establish life-long bonds with the spirit-realms. The experi- ence is known to last up to 3 nights, and has on occasion caused fatalities. The original inhabitants of Virginia also used a Datura sp. in boys initia- tion; root decoctions of it [‘wysoccan’] were administered after a lengthy period of fasting and instruction from elders. The experience was said to last 18-20 days [probably due to a very high sub-lethal dose], and was intended to erase memory of youth, in order to begin manhood. To the Chumash, Datura is considered a powerful spirit teacher. Many tribes used it in a similar context, or as a ritual shamanic inebriant (Furst 1976; Ott 1993; Schultes 1979; Wellmann 1978).
In the US, D. stramonium acquired the name ‘jimsonweed’ as a cor- ruption of ‘Jamestown weed’, referring to an incident in the 17th century, involving English soldiers on their way to stop a rebellion at Jamestown, Virginia. The soldiers picked, cooked and ate D. stramonium leaves, mis- taking them for an edible plant, resulting in a mass delirious intoxication lasting several days (Furst 1976).
It is also noteworthy that hawk-moths of the genus Manduca, polli- nators of D. wrightii [as D. meteloides], appear to experience intoxication when visiting the fl owers of the plant (Grant & Grant 1983).
Occasionally, Datura spp. have caused accidental poisonings [as with the Jamestown incident mentioned above], which have sometimes been fatal, though full recovery usually occurs within several days. A child [3 years, 9 months of age] was taken to hospital after eating the seeds from 3 D. stramonium fruits, and although he suffered hallucinations and oth- er characteristic effects, “twelve hours after his admission to hospital he was alert and rational, but his gait was still ataxic; after a further period of 12 hours he was normal in all respects, except for occasional episodes of head-rocking over the next two days” (Schumacher 1965).
Modern-day use of Datura spp. amongst non-traditional peoples has largely been conducted by young, ill-informed people in search of a free ‘trip’ – indeed, what are claimed by experimenters to have been ‘Datura trips’ are often in reality based on consumption of the closely related Brugmansia. It must be said, however, that these plants do have their adherents amongst responsible experimenters. Many of the consequent experiences are extremely frightening, disorienting, and sometimes life- threatening; few repeat the experience, it being notoriously diffi cult to work with. Smoking the leaves or seeds provides a relatively safer means of ingestion, as the dosage is easier to gauge, effects are usually less dras- tic, and the duration of the effects is shorter [see Brugmansia for more discussion on consumption and effects]. Some people do manage to in- gest Datura-preparations and direct a useful experience. Such people usu- ally accomplish this with the aid of ritual, ‘magic’, and experience; some just have a personal affi nity with these plants and their effects, that is lack- ing in most other people. It is not an easy journey to extract positive re- sults from if you are not a shaman already acquainted with it. Regular use is widely reputed, even amongst shamans, to cause insanity (Gowdy 1972;