III. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
5. Reconstrucción de neuronas
information from this and the previous chapter.
Reflective task 4.1.
Why was Krashen's distinction between learning and acquisition controversial? Try to write a short paragraph which summarises the problems.
4.2.3.2. Mc Laughlin's Information Processing Model (Mclaughlin 1978, 1990) McLaughlin draws heavily on information processing research in cognitive psychology.
According to him, learners are only able to process part of the input they receive. In order to compensate for this, learners acquire certain skills through routinisation which helps them to lessen the burden on their information-processing capacity.
Restructuring is also a central notion in McLaughlin's model. Through restructuring learners are able to expand their information-processing capacity and to introduce important changes into their interlanguage.
These changes can be of two different types:
- They may affect the way knowledge is represented in the mind.
- They may condition the strategies used by learners.
McLaughlin insists on the idea that practice is important for restructuring although he is not specific on the details of how this happens. Nevertheless, one of the important contributions of this theory, according to Ellis (1994), is the reconciliation of implicit and explicit learning.
4.2.3.3. The multidimensional model and processing operations (Clahsen, Meisel, and Pienenmann, 1983)
This was developed by a group of researchers working on a project conducted in the 1970s known as ZISA - Zweitsprachrwerb Italienischer und Spanisher Arbeiter. A combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies was used and most of the results obtained were based on the exhaustive analysis of learner language. The main principles of this theory can be summarised as follows:
- Learners go through several developmental stages in their learning of the second language. This can be extended to the field of Morphology.
- Learners show individual variation both in their learning development and in their use of rules.
- Developmental sequences or stages represent the systematic way in which learners overcome processing difficulties.
- Individual learner variation is the product of the learner's approach to the learning task. Socio-psychological factors may play an important role in this respect.
- Formal instruction will be effective if learners are really prepared for it, that is, if they have full command of the processing operations associated with the previous stage of acquisition.
This model is organised around two main independent axes: a variational and a developmental one. The former reflects the stage of learning where the learner is while the latter shows the nature of the learner's interlanguage. Furthermore, Clahsen (1984), using German as a reference-point, distinguishes three language processing strategies in the learner's production of a particular word order rule. These three strategies are hierarchical, that is, the first cannot occur until the second is evident, and the latter cannot be used until the third and last one has been accessed.
These can be described as follows:
- Canonical Order Structure (COS)
No changes from the prototypical word-order in the target language are detected.
- Initialisation/Finalisation Strategy (IFS)
Movements of the initial element to the end and vice versa are only found. In contrast, no changes within the internal structure occur.
- Subordinate Clause Strategy (SCS)
Alterations are not identified within the structure of the subordinate clause but they are observed within the elements of the main clause.
In a similar study, Johnston (1986) classified the processing operations for six different stages of learner's development. On this occasion, the results were based on a group of L2 learners of English in Australia. In stage one of Johnson's system, we observe that in this first stage learners have no knowledge of syntactic categories (formal grammar) as such, and formulas and chunks are used in utterances. However, by stage six in the learning process learners are able to move elements and to apply them to new structures.
The previous theory, although extremely comprehensive, has been strongly criticised on the basis of two main issues:
- It is quite difficult at times to draw a dividing line between developmental and variational features.
- Attention is almost exclusively paid to learner production and very little is said about the role of the input, the learner's assimilation of that input and the mechanisms used to process it and to comprehend grammatical structures.
4.2.3.4. A neurofunctional theory (Lamendella, 1979)
This theory draws on neurolinguistic rather than on psycholinguistic research. The main feature of this model is that there is a close connection between language function and the actual anatomy of the brain.
The neurofunctional explanation of SLA has considered the contribution of two areas of the brain:
- the right as opposed to the left hemisphere;
- those areas of the left hemisphere which clinical studies have shown to be closely associated with the comprehension and production of language.
Neurofunctional accounts have focused on specific aspects of SLA:
- age differences,
- formulaic speech (the learning of chunks or ready-made structures), - fossilisation, and
- pattern practice in the second language classroom.
Right hemisphere processing is associated with holistic processing, as opposed to serial or analytic processing, which occurs in the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere may then be responsible for the storing and processing of formulaic speech. The right hemisphere may also be connected with pattern practice in the second language classroom.
The left hemisphere is related to the creative use of language, including syntactic and semantic processing, and the motor operations involved in the production of speech and writing.
Lamendella has tried to formulate a comprehensive theory based on neurofunctional factors by making a distinction between Primary Language Acquisition and Secondary Language Acquisition. The second includes both foreign language learning and second language learning. Linked to these two types of language acquisition are different neurofunctional systems, each of which consists of a hierarchy of functions.
Each system has a different overall role in information processing. Two systems are particularly important:
- The communication hierarchy. This has responsibility for language and other forms of interpersonal communication.
- The cognitive hierarchy. This controls a variety of cognitive information processing activities that are also part of language use.
In this respect foreign language acquisition is marked by the use of the cognitive hierarchy. Lamendella concludes that SLA can be explained neurofunctionally with reference to (i) which neurofunctional system is used- the communicative or the cognitive- and (ii) which level within the chosen neurofunctional system is engaged.
4.2.3.5. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) (Rumelhart, McClelland and the PDP Research Group 1986)
The principles and assumptions of this approach to SLA were mainly of a psychological nature and were based on several computer models that simulate language learning. In this respect it differed from previous theories which combined linguistic, sociological, neurological and some times psychological perspectives. The attention to this model was stimulated by recent research conducted by Rummelhart, McClelland and their associates.
Their conception of 'knowledge' was quite innovatory since they believed that it is activated by the connections existing between different units that are stored in our brain.
One unit activates other units in parallel and simultaneously on different levels rather
The role of input was also essential within this approach since it is the element that puts the different units into operation and facilitates the connections between them. In computer simulations the input in the form of selected sets of data is fed into the computers. Learning is regarded as a gradual process involving a series of stages.
Furthermore, the innate nature of language learning is seriously questioned by this theory since acquisition may be highly conditioned by environmental factors. Finally, the proponents of this model maintained that the role of rules is rather secondary since computer models do not necessarily work according to them.
4.3. Readings
[1] READING 4.1: Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (1993). Theories of second language learning. Chapter 2 in How Languages Are Learned. Oxford University Press.
4.4. Suggestions for further reading
[1] Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2] Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.
Oxford.
[3] Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. (1991). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Longman. London.
[4] McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of Second Language Learning. Arnold.
London.
[5] White, L. (2003). Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar.
Cambridge. University Press.
4.5. Web reading
[1] Article which discusses the Lexical Approach, and input v intake.
Link to webpage:
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/lexical-approach-2-what-does-lexical-approach-look
[Read: August 25, 2010, GMT-5].
[2] Chomsky's Universal Grammar hypothesis - summarised.
Link to webpage: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_grammar [Read: August 25, 2010, GMT-5].
Glossary
Acculturation Model/Modelo de Aculturación
Theory of SLA acquisition developed by Schumann. It considers L2 acquisition as a form of acculturation. Acculturation means the process of adapting to the new culture with the corresponding changes in the learners' attitudes to their own cultural values.
Affective filter/Filtro afectivo
Term used by Krashen to show the importance of affective factors in SLA. The filter controls how much input the learner comes in contact with and how much of that input is transformed into intake. This means that high-motivated and self-confident learners have low filters and obtain a great amount of input, whereas low-motivated learners have high filters and so receive little input. The Affective Filter influences the rate of development, but not the route of development.
Affective state/Estado afectivo
The student's affective state is conditioned by a series of factors such as anxiety, motivation, attitudes, motivation, the desire to compete. This will directly condition the rate of L2 acquisition and academic achievement.
Acquisition/Adquisición
Notion used by Krashen to refer to the unconscious, spontaneous and natural process of language assimilation and internalisation where the learner's attention is focused on meaning rather than on form. It contrasts with learning.
Behaviourist Learning Theory/Teoría Conductista de Aprendizaje
This is a general learning theory as it applies to all kinds of learning. It is based on the idea that learning is acquired by the formation of habits. The learner receives stimuli which lead to responses; these, in their turn, are reinforced by rewards or corrected. Behaviourism emphasises the importance of environmental factors in the learning process as opposed to cognitivism, which pays special attention to mental and internal factors.
Caretaker talk/Habla dirigida a los niños
This refers to the language used by adults when addressing young children.
This is characterised by a series of modifications or adaptations to make it easier for the children to understand. The modifications can be formal (the use of higher pitch, clearer pronunciation, slow pace) or/and interactional (the use of explanations, repetitions, examples, clarifications, etc.).
Contrastive Analysis/Análisis Contrastivo
Set of procedures for comparing and contrasting the linguistic system of two languages with the aim of identifying main similarities and differences.
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis/ Hipótesis del Análisis Contrastivo
According to this hypothesis, errors in the L2 arise as the result of the differences existing between the learner's L1 and L2.
Creole/Lengua criolla
This is a pidgin language that has become the native language of a group of speakers. Broadly speaking, a creole is more linguistically complex than a pidgin. An example of an English-based creole is Jamaican creole.
Developmental sequence/Secuencia de desarrollo
SLA research has shown that the L2 learner goes through a series of stages in their learning: negatives, interrogatives, ing-forms, possessive, copula be, etc.
Apparently, this sequence seems to be universal for all learners independent of their language background and it is not affected by their L1.
EFL/ILE (Inglés como Lengua Extranjera) Abbreviation for English as a Foreign Language.
ELF
English as a Lingua Franca.
Error/Error
This is any deviation in learner language which has its origin in the lack of knowledge of the correct rule. A distinction is generally made between error and mistake. While the former is systematic, the latter is produced by factors such as lack of attention, tiredness, negligence and so on.
Error analysis/Análisis de errores
Study and analysis of the errors made by learners with the aim of identifying, describing and explaining them in learner language. Error Analysis was specially developed in the 1960s and tried to show that many of the errors made by learners could not only be explained as a simple interference of their L1 since they reflected universal learning strategies.
ESL/ISL (Inglés como Segunda Lengua) Abbreviation for English as a Second Language.
FLA/APL (Adquisición de la Primera Lengua)
Abbreviation for First Language Acquisition. It refers to the learning of the first language or mother tongue.
Formal instruction/ Enseñanza formal
Formal instruction constraints with natural learning. It involves some attempt to focus learner's attention on specific aspects of the L2 so that they will learn them. Several types of formal instruction can be distinguished. The most common approaches are inductive (the leaner is given language input and is encouraged to come up with the rule) and deductive (full information is provided to the learner about a rule or item).
Fossilisation/ Fosilización
When learners fail to reach target-language competence, it is said that they fossilize because they do not make any progress in their learning. It is quite common that in the learning of a second language, certain pronunciation features, use of vocabulary and even grammar fossilize. It reflects the operation of several internal processes.
Individual learner differences (IDs)/Diferencias Individuales de Aprendizaje (DIA)
Although there is a series of factors that are common to all learners, there are others that are individual to the learner, such as age, intelligence, affective factors, cognitive style, learning strategies, personality, aptitude, etc.
Input/ Aducto o Entrada de datos
Language information or data the learner is exposed and has access to. The learner may receive input from different sources (the teacher, textbook, readers, audio and video tapes, other students in the class, satellite TV) and it may adopt written or oral forms. It contrasts with output, that is, the language that is produced by the individual.
Input Hypothesis/ Hipótesis del Aducto o Hipótesis de la Entrada de Datos This is one of the five hypotheses of Krashen's Monitor Model. According to this, acquisition will take place only when the input he learner is exposed to is a little beyond the current level of his competence, i.e. the i+ 1 level.
Interaction/Interacción
Interaction consists of the discourse jointly constructed by the learner and the interlocutor in the classroom or outside the classroom.
Interactionist Learning Theory/Teoría de Aprendizaje Interaccionista
Learning theory that combines the contributions of the linguistic environment and the learner's internal mechanisms in explaining language acquisition.
Interference/Interferencia
According to behaviourist learning theory, most of the errors or deviation made by learners in their study of the second language are due to the negative influence of those aspects of the L1 which are different from the L2. Thus a Spanish learner of English may say "To me like(s) football" because in Spanish one says "A mí me gusta el fútbol".
Interlanguage/Interlengua
Term coined by Selinker to refer to the systematic knowledge of the L2 which is independent of the learner's L1 and the target language. This construct is at present used with three different senses: (a) series of interlocking systems which characterise acquisition, (b) the system that is observed at a single stage of development, (c) a particular L1/L2 combination (for instance, Spanish/English, French/English).
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)/Dispositivo de Adquisición del Lenguaje (DAL)
According to Chomsky, we are born with a built-in device of some kind that predisposes us to language acquisition, that is, to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language.
Language transfer/Transferencia lingüística
According to Odlin, language transfer is the influence that results from the similarities and differences existing between the L1 and the target language.
This can be negative (interference) or positive (the similarity of certain features between the L1 and L2 facilitates second language learning).
Learning/Aprendizaje
According to Krashen, this constraints with acquisition and refers to the development of conscious knowledge of an L2 through conscious effort and formal study.
Linguistic universals/Universales lingüísticos
According to Chomsky, there exist a series of features that are common to all or most world languages, e.g. negation can be regarded as a linguistic universal since in all languages there are ways and means of expressing negative forms.
L1/L1 (Lengua 1)
Abbreviation for first language or mother tongue.
L2/L2 (Lengua 2)
Abbreviation for second language.
Mentalist theories of language learning/Teorías mentalistas de aprendizaje Language learning theories that emphasise the importance of the learner's innate mental capacities for acquiring a language. According to this theory, in their minds learners possess a series of principles that are activated by means of the input they are exposed to.
Monitor/Monitor
Learner's capacity to control their own learning. At times learners self-correct when they realize that they have made a mistake. This Monitor (with a capital 'M') gives its name to Krashen's learning theory and it refers to the ways used by learners to edit linguistic forms produced by means of 'acquired' knowledge.
Morpheme studies/Estudios de morfemas
Acquisition research in the 1970's concentrated on the order of acquisition of a series of grammatical units or morphological features which were not restricted to English but also to other languages such as Spanish and German. Their main purpose was to identify an order of acquisition for the different languages in both a first and a second language situation. These studies are known in the second language field as the morpheme studies.
Negotiation of meaning/Negociación de significado
In the communication process both speaker and interlocutor are forced to introduce comprehension checks, clarifications, paraphrases to solve possible problems of understanding and breakdown. According to the interactionalist learning theory, negotiation of meaning is indispensable for learning to take place.
Over-generalization/Sobregeneralización
L1 and L2 learners tend to apply a particular rule to cases in which this rule does not apply, e.g. the use of conducí in Spanish instead of conduje, or in English bringed instead of the irregular form brought.
Proficiency/Competencia en el uso de la lengua
This refers to the student's skill in the use of the language as regards their command and understanding of the written and spoken language. It contrasts
with the term 'competence' which denotes the learner's theoretical and passive knowledge of the target language.
Protocol/Protocolo
Protocols are very commonly used for the investigation of language learning strategies and they usually consist of the subjects' reflection upon one area or factor of their language learning. In many cases these thoughts are recorded by means of audio or video cassettes so that they can be studied in more detail.
Reference group/Grupo de referencia
This generally represents the target language group with which learners wish to identify in natural L2 settings.
Self-report/Autoinforme
Teachers or learners reflect upon their learning or teaching, and write their views on a report form. Self-reports are commonly used as research and self-assessment instruments.
Silent period/Período de silencio
All learners and children, in particular, may go through a period during which they do not try to say anything in the L2 although they may be internalizing the new language by listening to others speak it.
All learners and children, in particular, may go through a period during which they do not try to say anything in the L2 although they may be internalizing the new language by listening to others speak it.