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In the above section, the theories of Pavlov, Skinner, Watson, Wolpe, and Bandura have briefly been sketched. The key insights gained from these behavioural theorists which are of relevance for the teaching of life skills follow.

The main contribution of Pavlov’s research is that a person can be conditioned to expect behaviour when confronted by certain stimuli. This means that consistent reward (pleasant experiences) and punishment (unpleasant experiences) produce good routines and discipline. Conversely, when the negative conditioning (the trigger for that behaviour) is removed, the behaviour can also be unlearned. Thus, negative behaviour resulting from negative conditioning may also disappear. Similarly, according to Watson, people become who they are through their conditioning; in other words, through the behaviour that they are taught and habituated in through their emotional, verbal, and manual triggers. Just as we are taught responses, we can also be untaught or unconditioned, when the responses prove to be inappropriate. Operant behaviour is, as proposed by Skinner, teaches that behaviour is

reinforced through a reward system. Rewards such as money, attention, approval, and affection help to internalise the correct behaviour. Furthermore, a person who has developed neurotic fears can be treated and freed from the debilitating influences of their fear. According to Wolpe, there is a possibility of spontaneous recovery if the harmful stimulus or trigger is removed for a longer period, and old habits can be replaced by new ones. By identifying the stimuli that evoke fear, treatment can also be given to inhibit unhealthy responses to the neurotic anxiety of a person.

All three of these early behaviourists focus on the possibility of changing, modifying or learning entirely new behaviour through conditioning based on pleasant or unpleasant experiences. In terms of learning life skills, teachers can assist young people in identifying inappropriate responses to certain triggers and in replacing them with positive/negative responses by reward/penalty systems. Similarly, positive behaviour can be reinforced through repetition and encouragement. A limitation of this early work was that it focused mainly on bringing about changes in observable behaviour.

Bandura extended behaviourism beyond observable behaviour as emphasised by the early behaviourists, such as Pavlov, Skinner and Wolpe. He drew attention to the fact that internal cognitive processes which cannot be observed also have a powerful impact on the behaviour of people. This has led to the inclusion of cognitive processes within behavioural approaches to the psychological study of human behaviour. Cognitive insight supports the acquisition process, whereby new knowledge and skills are learned. In terms of life skills, teachers need to first explain to learners why they are being taught a skill and during the teaching process, provide reasons as to why something is done in a particular way while the process is modelled. Knowing what a skill can do provides a strong source of motivation for individuals before they begin to learn. Goal setting, visualisation of future gains and providing a context are all important aspects of the learning process.

The process of motivating and modelling the required behaviour first is an effective way of teaching necessary life skills. This stresses the role of the teacher as a role model who should demonstrate life skills by example. Similarly, teachers can introduce other role models to children in the classroom through stories about ‘heroes’ or by inviting exceptional guests to engage with children. A further contribution lies in Bandura’s notion of self-efficacy. A person with high levels of efficacy will be more persistent, resilient, and adventurous when it comes to acquiring new skills or knowledge. Therefore, it is very important to develop the efficacy, abilities, and self-esteem of all learners in a class, particularly those children who lack the above qualities. Life skills teaching could be supported by means of drama activities linked to a Forum Theatre engagement in the learners’ Creative Arts lessons Once a child is successful

at a certain activity or skill level, their efficacy levels are, in turn, boosted. Thus, teachers should be on the look-out for moments where a child displays mastery of a skill or behaviour and then praise or reward them. They can also guide them by means of the discussions and spect-acting activities that take place during a Forum Theatre exploration

To finish off this section, social cognitive theory as developed by Albert Bandura focuses amongst others on observational learning, the need for exposure to correct modelling and the benefit of providing the reasons why something is being taught, as it sets a good context for the new learning. Developing good efficacy and self-esteem provides a fertile ground for learning to happen and knowledge to take root and develop. Teachers not only need to be exemplary with their own behaviour; they also need to praise and reward good behaviour when it occurs so that a positive learning spiral takes place. The ideal context for learning happens when children are happy to learn, aspire to improve themselves and revel in the development and growth of their peers. Modellers are more effective if they have respect, are competent, enjoy high status and have power. Teachers need to be skilful, able to demonstrate problem- solving strategies, set standards and apply the rules and principles guided by a moral code and need to be creative. While working with children, a basic prerequisite is awareness of the children’s ability levels; how well they can communicate verbally and how far their motor and cognitive skills have developed. Observation of the consequences of the behaviour modelled by others further allows for vicarious learning. Paying attention, retaining, behaving correctly and being motivated all play a part in the learning process. A person’s own perception of how well they can do a task either encourages or demotivates them. Reciprocal determinism means that there is constant interaction between the environment, behaviour and the person.

We move now from these key behavioural theorists to look at influential cognitive behavioural theorists who studied what people do in their thinking and understanding processes to better understand how to teach life skills to children and young adults.