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CHAPTER 8 NITROGEN POLLUTION IN THE EUROPEAN
8.1 Origins and proposed solutions
8.1.1 Introduction
literally the enrichment of the environment with nutrients, is a problem occurring on a large scale in the developed world and especially in the European Union (EU) (Commission of the 1992b). In fact, not one but several problems arise from the excessive addition of nutrients to the environment: of rivers and lakes, acidification and eutrophication of terrestrial natural areas, nitrate contamination of groundwater, phosphate saturation of agricultural soils, and eutrophication of coastal seas. These problems occur on different scale levels, the actual effects are different, and even in their immediate origins they vary. For all of them, however, an important cause is an imbalance of the nutrient budgets of the systems involved (UNEP, 1992; Brandenburg et 1992).
So far, environmental policy moves to tackle nutrient-related problems have been undertaken on different scale levels: subnational, national and The eutrophication of coastal seas is on the international problem list. The United Nations have stated the eutrophication of seas to be a subject for immediate global concern and have urged the national governments to regulate this 'marine pollution from land-based sources' art. 207) in their environmental policies. The countries involved have concluded international agreements in the Paris Convention for the North Sea (1974) and the Barcelona Convention for the Mediterranean (1976). Atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds is also an internationally acknowledged problem. Agreements have been made by European countries to reduce the emissions in question. The other problems are treated by EU countries in widely differing ways & Van Dijk, 1991). Some have manure policies on a national level, in others the issue is regulated by federal states, provinces or counties, while yet others do not regulate at all. The question, then, is the coherence between the individual problems, whether in origins or in effects, justifies supranational approach for the pack of them or not. Springer (1983) gives three criteria for taking a supranational approach to environmental problems:
in the case of transboundary pollution;
2. in the case of damage to the 'res communis', or common property;
3. in the case of local problems for which the solution has international implications, which may be another way of saying: in the case of local problems with international (economic) origins. In this article, the focus is on one of the most important nutrients: nitrogen in its various
It is argued that all three criteria for a supranational approach are met in the case of The European Union has been chosen as the region studied, for two different reasons: (1) nitrogen-related environmental problems are apparent in many parts of the EU, and (2) the European Community (EC) is a supranational institution with regulatory powers. The purpose of
article is twofold:
to identify the (economic) origins of various nitrogen-related environmental problems, and to
This chapter contains two articles, both submitted to Conservation. One of the two, here Chapter for publication revised form: Voet, E. van der, R. & H.A. Udo de Nitrogen Pollution European Union - and Proposed Solutions. Conservation, in press. The other one, Chapter of this thesis, is still being reviewed: Voet, E. van der, R. Kleijn & H.A. Udo de Haes. Nitrogen Pollution in the
establish any connections between these problems;
- to investigate the effectiveness of internationally agreed or intended options for solving the aforementioned problems.
In section the method of investigation is discussed. After that, the individual nitrogen- related problems within the EU and their interconnections are investigated by analysing the flows of nitrogen (N) through the EU in section The origins of three different nitrogen-related problems are traced in section In section existing policies on an international level of relevance to nutrient-related problems are discussed. These policies include the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the recent changes according to the so-called Plan. The impacts of a package of measures consisting of probable trends and policy measures impacting on N flows are calculated in section In section finally, the results of these calculations are discussed.
8.1.2 Methods and materials General description the SFA method
For the analysis of nitrogen flows within the EU area, the Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) method as described by Udo de Haes et al. (1988) and used in various studies (Huppes et 1992; Van der Voet et 1993; et in press) has been adopted. This method starts from the materials balance principle (described and used for the analysis of nitrogen flows i.a. by Ayres et al. (1989), and in a regional nitrogen balance study by Brunner & Baccini (1992), et al. and The crux of the SFA method is the integrated examination of all flows of a substance or a group of substances within a defined geographic system, encompassing both its economy and its environment. The framework of the SFA method can be visualized as the Substance Flow Diagram (SFD), shown in Figure 8.1. The diagram is divided into a subsystem for the economy and one for the environment. In the system, a distinction is made between flows of substances (ovals in Fig. 1), stocks of substances (diamonds), and proces- ses involved in changing and subdividing substance flows (squares). The figures in Figure 8.1 represent of nitrogen in the EU in 1988. A further specification is given below, in the section treating the nitrogen flows in the
Flows
Both subsystems have an inflow side: import from other systems; recovery or erosion from system stocks; and formation 'out of nothing' (i.e. from basic elements or from other compounds) (top, Both subsystems also have an outflow side: export to other systems, degradation, and (re)addition to stocks (bottom, 7-12). In addition, there is an interchange between the two subsystems in the form of emissions to, and extraction from the environment (centre, 13 and 14). Stocks
Accumulation (or depletion) can occur in both subsystems and 16). In the societal subsystem, this not only means the stockpiling of raw materials or products, but also includes the temporary storage of waste materials on industrial premises. In the environmental subsystem, a distinction can be made among the various environmental compartments in which accumulation can occur: soil (locally or diffusively), sediment, groundwater or biota. In the system's 'immobile stocks', accumulation or (as will more often be the case) depletion are also made visible.
Processes
Figure 8.1 Substance Flow Diagram for nitrogen compounds in the European Union. In ktonnes N, 1988.
distribution of the substance flows, and their possible transformations. In terms of the economy, these are processes tied up with production, consumption and waste treatment; in the processes involved are physico-chemical processes (evaporation, deposition, leaching, sedimentation, decomposition etc.) and biological processes (bioaccumulation, biodégradation etc.). Figure in fact represents the result of all processes combined, and should be regarded as the most general summary of the SFA analysis. In order to determine the pathways of a substance or group of substances in a quantitative manner, these underlying economic and environmental processes must be
of the SFA method: SFINX
In order to obtain an overview of the actual situation in the EU, it suffices to make an inventory of flows, provided the data are available. However, to trace the origins of specific pollution problems or calculate the impacts of certain abatement measures requires a certain degree of modelling: the relations between the various flows and/or stocks must be specified. For a real scenario analysis, which is not attempted in this article, the required modelling would be quite extensive and would have to encompass both flows and stocks.
For the purposes of this article, calculations have been made with the computer program SFINX (Substance Flow (Van Oers et 1994). The relations between the flows are modelled as linear equations, and no stocks are specified. With SFINX, the long-term equilibrium situation resulting from a given nitrogen management regime is calculated; no dynamic aspects, meaning the time span required to reach this equilibrium and the path towards it,
are involved. In view of the swiftness of the economic expectations are that this time span will not be long (less than 10 years). Moreover, no spatial differentiation is made: the results of these calculations are valid only for the EU as a whole, and may not be translated to a lower scale level. Locally, very different patterns of change might be detected, according to the local situation. And even on the EU level the resulting flow levels must be judged on the order of magnitude and the direction of the changes, rather than on the absolute numbers.
SFINX is used for two purposes: to calculate the origins of several selected flows', and to estimate the principle effectiveness of the intended pollution abatement options. Intended effects as well as unintended side-effects will be shown as a result of encompassing all flows within the
system.
8.1.3 Nitrogen pollution problems in the EU and the related anthropogenic flows Environmental problems related to nitrogen compounds
As stated in the introduction, nitrogen-related environmental problems can be detected on several scale levels.
The problem of groundwater contamination with nitrates is mostly placed on the local or regional level (RIVM, 1992). Surplus nitrate from agricultural soils, very mobile in soils and very soluble, leaches to the groundwater. In many areas in the EU, up to of the EU territory, the maximum admissible concentration of 50 for drinking water is transgressed, making the water unfit for consumption without prior Transgression of nitrate limits occurs in most if not all EU states, although the perception of its seriousness varies with the country (RIVM, 1992; Stringer, 1988; Strebel et 1989). The origins of the problem appear to be local, but for its effects this is not entirely true. In the long run, the nitrates accumulating in the groundwater will emerge somewhere. This may be after hundreds of years and at quite another location depending on groundwater flows, making the problem both long-term and
et 1992).
Acidification and eutrophication of natural areas occurs through atmospheric deposition of N- compounds et 1991). As a result of deposition of acid and potentially acid compounds the soil pH drops, thus mobilizing aluminium and other metals, and causing a loss of vitality of trees and forests, and ultimately their death. As a result of nutrient addition, eutrophication causes a change in the species composition of ecosystems, favouring the earlier and faster growing species and supplanting the often more vulnerable and rare and mesotrophic species. This problem is defined on a continental scale (RIVM, 1992). Among its origins are the emission or evaporation of and ammonia) from chimneys, exhaust pipes, stables and arable soils.
Eutrophication of coastal seas is caused mainly by the inflow of nutrients from rivers. This results in an increase in biomass. On the one hand, this allows for a larger fish population. On the other hand, increased nutrient availability may lead (and has already led) to toxic algal bloom, resulting in mass fish mortality. This problem might be referred to as occurring on a level et 1991). There is an ongoing discussion as to whether these effects are due mainly to nitrogen, to phosphorus or even to silicon, or in other words which macronutrient is the limiting factor. As yet, there is no clear answer to this question.
On the global level, N-compounds in the form of ('laughing gas') contribute to the global warming problem. has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 170-270 et