RECURSOS HUMANOS:

The purpose of IA flight control systems is to reduce, change or eliminate human pilot roles and re- sponsibilities.To discuss the implications of introducing an IA system, we must first study the current system (two human pilots) and identify the roles and responsibilities, operational scenarios, commu- nications, exist-ing automation and information needs required for this system that are currently in place. Capturing this complex sociotechnical work system is not an easy task. There are numerous operations (some of which are not documented) that take place in a typical cockpit depending upon the operational scenario. Capturing each and every task is beyond the scope of this project, we instead captured the tasks for three crucial phases of the flight: cruise, approach, and emergency landing. We considered a scenario where there are two pilots in a flight—a pilot flying (PF) and a pilot monitor- ing (PM). The PF is in charge of flying while the PM monitors the plane’s instruments, displays, communicates with Air Traffic Control (ATC), and assists the PF. The roles are interchangeable, so both pilots must be competent enough to handle all tasks. Further, some tasks may be performed by both pilots or shared (S) between them. Some tasks are done throughout the course of the flight, whereas others are done at frequent intervals or when needed. Tasks that are not regularly done are often triggered by an event, such as directions from the ATC or copilot, alerts from the control displays or the pilots’ sense that something is wrong. We found that tasks are often clearly defined. 6_{A “super dispatcher” [36] is a ground-based pilot responsible for monitoring a number of active aircraft at one time,}

such that when an aircraft enters an “off-nominal” state due to an issue or anomaly, the pilot becomes a ground-based first officer dedicated to that aircraft).

4.2 Cognitive Work Analysis

There are certain sets of inputs required to perform the tasks. Pilots are often able to clearly describe the actions that are taken and the outputs that are expected on completion of the task. We also found that, a number of tasks are common to several phases of the flight. For instance, irrespective of the flight phase, the pilots monitor the instruments continuously. Also, several tasks are interdependent in the sense that, one follows the other such as sensing a hazard and taking mitigation steps.

To capture all these in a conceptually clean manner, we chose the Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) approach—a structured framework specifically developed for considering the development and anal- ysis of complex automated and semiautomated systems [76]. Unlike many human factors approaches, CWA does not focus on how human-system interaction should proceed, or how it currently works. Instead, “through a focus on constraints, it develops a model of how work can be conducted within a given work domain, without explicitly identifying specific sequences of actions.”

A consulting pilot who is experienced with dual-pilot, corporate jet operations was interviewed to sup- port the CWA. A cognitive walkthrough was conducted in which we listed the PF, PM and “shared” functions for each scenario, creating a matrix of consecutive functions to information and communi- cations required to perform each function in various environmental contexts.

First, a quick look analysis was performed to acclimate the pilot to thinking critically about the func- tions required to complete each phase of flight, as shown in Figure5, without defining specific roles, activities or modalities of interaction. The activities recorded are listed in Table1.

Figure 5: Phases Of A Flight (Image courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration 4.1 Taxi) Next, a more in-depth work analysis was conducted for each of the three aforementioned scenar- ios. Each of the lowest-level functions was assessed in terms of logical trigger, inputs and outputs, and specific behavior currently required to perform each function. The complete CWA worksheet is delivered as a supporting document along with this report.

4 SAFETY RELEV ANT REQ UIREMENTS IN IA SYSTEMS Flight Phases

Pre-Flight Planning Push back Taxi Takeoff/ Climb Cruise Approach/ Landing Review mission and

estimated departure time; Start APU

Coordinate with crew on safety briefing

Confirm taxi

clearance Select headings

Set radio

frequencies Get clearance

Select route; Get ATC

clearances taxi to movement area

Proceed to hold

point Select flaps

Follow charts for

flight path Execute STAR

Calculate flight duration; Load flight plan in FMS

Proceed to special services (de-ice) if req’d

Hold per controller instructions

Check speed Engage autopilot Apply speed brakes as req’d

Check route for terrain, restrictions; Check and confirm instruments

Check brakes Enter taxi queue Check winds Review weather

radar Lower gear

Review weather and winds forecasts; Check and confirm panel settings

Check mode control

panel, CDU throttle up Throttle back

Review traffic and

terrain displays Select flaps

Review NOTAMS

Confirm clearances, taxi instructions; Get situational awareness

check flaps, trim Confirm operation as

expected Monitor winds Check speed

Evaluate tech stops – places to get fuel; Sign

maintenance logs

Crew Briefing – normal events, abnormal events, initial route and altitude briefing

Run through taxi

checklist Execute SID

Listen for ATC instructions/ advisory

Confirm clearance

Check fuel prices for destination and fuel stops; Start engines

Look outside Get clearance Raise gear

Adjust headings and altitude as required

Engage required Nav aids

Identify and review SID; Check ailerons, elevators, rudder

Look for traffic Turn to assigned

runway Check flaps

Adjust cost index as required

Locate runway center line

Identify and review STAR;

Confirm doors armed Monitor party line

Adjust altitude and headings as req’d Respond to equipment issues as required Confirm ability to execute

Review pertinent charts; Turn on landing lights

Construct mental picture of traffic

Get wake turbulence situational awareness

Monitor instruments

Follow missed approach if req’d

Table 1: Cognitive Work Analysis Quick Look

4.2 Cogniti v e W ork Analysis Flight Phases

Pre-Flight Planning Push back Taxi Takeoff/ Climb Cruise Approach/ Landing Determine fuel

requirements; Complete pre-flight checklists

Make a last minute check of wind – position the controls for the aircraft type

Look up power setting based on altitude and temperature

touch down

Confirm seat configuration for weight and balance; Preflight aircraft

Convert TAS to IAS, and compare iPad Pilatus app to Honeywell FMW to confirm performance

slow aircraft

Calculate takeoff distance/ landing roll; Confirm databases are up to date

Confirm taxi clearance

Take Weight and Balance, review limitations; Evaluate weather, route, and options Review aircraft speed limitations; Evaluate clearance vs. filed route, and update plan

Document crew roster; Discuss desired route amendments

Note FMS and EGPWS s/w configs; Verify cabin ready (varies for corporate vs. airline)

Note VOR Nav configurations; Verify manifest and passenger documents

Table 2: Cognitive Work Analysis Quick Look. Contd.

4 SAFETY RELEVANT REQUIREMENTS IN IA SYSTEMS