RECURSOS MATERIALES Y SERVICIOS

As outlined in the introductory chapter, the business environment during the recent economic crisis changed dramatically and became more volatile, uncertain and complex. To respond to these challenges, it has been suggested that the skills needed for effective leadership within this environment have also changed, with more complex and adaptive thinking abilities now being required (Petrie, 2014; Day et al, 2014; Avolio, 2009). These changes have taken place, however, within a context where the leadership literature has largely been dominated by a focus on transformational leadership and to a lesser degree transactional leadership (Dinh et al, 2014), where as described in the criticisms of transformation and transactional leadership in the previous chapter, a two-factor theory of leadership has evolved. It has been contended

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that newer theories of leadership development (e.g. authentic leadership) require a focus on not just ‘what’ is being developed but ‘how’ it is being developed (Petrie, 2014; Day et al, 2014; Kegan and Lahey, 2009). This requires a transition (Petrie, 2014) from a focus on horizontal development (i.e. the development of new skills, abilities and behaviours via competency models) to vertical development (i.e. the ‘stages’ that people progress in regard to how they make sense of the world). This suggests that the focus organisations have placed on competency models (Day et al, 2014; Riggio, 2008) may not be sufficient to develop leaders in the future. Notwithstanding this, leadership competency models and their effectiveness will now be reviewed as they were utilised in the context of the current study.

3.7.1 Leadership Competency Models

Leadership competency models are used extensively in the corporate world for the development of leaders. Despite this, Bolden (2016, p.34) asserts that ‘there is no consistent scientific evidence…to suggest that leaders with particular traits or qualities are more likely to be successful than those with others, yet organisations of all kinds continue to develop and promote competency frameworks to measure and assess leadership capability’. Notwithstanding this assertion, a number of researchers have explored leadership development via the use of leadership competency models (e.g. Gentry and Sparks, 2012, 2008; Mumford et al 2004; Dulewicz and Higgs, 2002; Boyatzis, 1982). Boyatzis (1982, p. 21) in his seminal work The Competent Manager defined competencies as ‘an underlying characteristic of a person in that it may be a motive, trait, skill, aspect of one's self-image or social role, or a body of knowledge he or she uses’. A number of researchers have explored linkages between competencies, leadership and performance (Jena and Chandan, 2014; Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban- Metcalfe, 2013; Muller and Turner, 2010; Geoghean and Dulweicz, 2008), personality (Johnson et al, 2004; Hogan, 2002; Judge et al, 2002) and emotional intelligence

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(Boyatzis et al, 2008; McKee et al, 2008; Newman, 2007; Dulewicz and Higgs, 2002; Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee, 2002). McKee et al (2008) have demarcated the emotional and social awareness competencies required to lead change into the following categories: (1) social awareness, (2) self-awareness, (3) relationship management, and (4) self-management. Social awareness includes empathy and organisational awareness, while self-awareness includes emotional self-awareness. Aspects of relationship management include inspirational leadership, teamwork, coach and mentor and influence, while self-management includes positive outlook, achievement orientation, adaptability and emotional self-control. DeVries 2013, cited in Ungerer et al 2013, p. 47) states ‘that most effective leaders possess clusters of competencies in three areas, namely cognitive competencies, such as conceptual thinking and holistic overviews; social competencies, such as empathy, presence and political awareness; and personal competencies, such as energy, self-confidence and personal effectiveness.’ The humanistic approach highlights other competencies - hope, humility, values, realism and temperance (Bester, 2012). Thus, a vast array of competencies have been identified and their benefits and criticisms will be outlined next.

3.7.2 Benefits of Leadership Competency Models

Competencies are often seen as a tool to express what is valued by the organisation, as well as defining the characteristics identified to produce excellent performance and critical leadership skills (Gentry and Sparks, 2012; Myers, 2012; Asree et al, 2010). Table 3.3 outlines some of the benefits of using leadership competencies for both the individual and the organisation.

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Table 3.3 - Benefits of Leadership Competency Models. (Adapted from DeRue and Myers, 2014; Van Velsor and McCauley, 2004)

Individual Organisation

 Can be used as an individual guide for development

 Summarises the experience and insight of leaders

 Specifies a range of useful leader behaviours

 Outlines a leadership framework that can be used to help guide individuals in their selection, promotion, development and in understanding leadership effectiveness

 Provides a common language that can be used in an organisation to discuss leadership

 Openly communicates which leader behaviours are important in an organisation

 Helps to distinguish between the performance of individuals

 Links leader behaviour to the strategic directions and goals of the business

 Provides an integrated model of

leadership that is relevant across many positions and leadership situations

 Provides a framework for integrating HR processes and systems

The literature (DeRue and Myers, 2014; Alban-Metcalfe and Alimo-Metcalfe, 2013; Asree, 2010; Hollenbeck, McCall and Silzer, 2006; Prahalad and Hamel, 1993; Boyatzis, 1982) emphasises that competencies offer a method for organisations to integrate their people processes with firm strategy. Asree et al (2010) found that that leadership competencies positively influenced the responsiveness and performance of the firm. Geoghean and Dulewicz (2008) in their study on project managers reported a significant relationship between a project manager‘s leadership competencies and project success. Alban-Metcalfe and Alimo-Metcalfe (2013, p. 59) summarised their value when stating ‘what competency frameworks – when thoroughly researched,

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properly constructed, and differentiated to meet the particular needs of different groups of managers and professionals – can do is define and describe what a leader needs to be able to do in order to achieve the goals and targets appropriate to their role.’ The need to thoroughly research, construct and differentiate leadership competencies has arisen because of the various criticisms documented in the literature and these will be discussed next.

3.7.3 Criticisms of Leadership Competency Models

Despite research indicating support for leadership competency models, extensive debate exists at both an academic and practitioner level on their value (Collins et al, 2015; Packard, 2014; Seligman, 2011; Hollenbeck, McCall and Silzer 2006). Collins et al (2015) state that there are several issues with competency frameworks, which include: (1) that their apparent comprehensiveness masks oversimplification i.e. they are generally too detailed to allow clear communication of competencies required; (2) that key competencies espoused by many professions are context dependent and therefore not generic across different settings and occupations; and (3) that there are inherently limited applications for optimising performance if a baseline of performance is the expectation. Packard (2014) states that a major limitation in our current knowledge is the sparse evidence that associates competence with actual workplace outcomes. Battilana et al (2014) further suggest that competency models only work if their target stays the same every year. However, this is unlikely to be the case in organisations, which continuously strive to improve their standards for performance and operate in a VUCA environment.

In summary, while there are criticisms of leadership competency models they continue to be used extensively by organisations to assist in the defining and enhancement of leadership behaviour and skills. The development of these leadership competencies is often via varying development practices such as leadership training

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workshops, coaching, action learning, 360 degree feedback, job assignments and networking. These practices will be discussed next.