LA RED COMUNITARIA DE LA PERIFERIA

3.2.1. Defining the 'Word'

The first problem we encounter before starting the description of prominence in Cantonese is how to define 'word'. I must warn that there is no equivalent corresponding to the English 'word' in Chinese. In discussing stress Barnett (1945-50) and Hashimoto (1972) avoid using 'word' explicitly but use monosyllable and disyllable, etc., instead. On the other hand, Chao (1968: 136-193) has a comprehensive discussion on defining the 'word' in Mandarin Chinese. At the end he gives synoptic tables of 'word-like units' as a conclusion, in which 'morphemes' and 'morpheme complexes' are listed. Bloomfield was a pioneer in defining 'word': "Forms which occur as sentences are free forms. ...A free form which is not a phrase, is a word. ...[A] word is a minimum free form. ... is the smallest unit of speech. ... [W]e have the custom of leaving spaces between words in our writing and printing" (Bloomfield 1935: 178). He uses modern Chinese as an example of a language which has free forms only and, in which each word consists of one syllable.

3.2.2. /tqi:6/(W ord)

In that sense, one syllable equals one word in Chinese. From this, we can safely say that a word for 'word' in Chinese is /tqi:6/, because in Chinese almost all monosyllables are morphemes and are written as single characters with spaces in between - those, we call

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/tpi: /, such as /py: / (book) and /t s:j / (table). Morphemes which consist of more than one

syllable are very rare, such as /ka:t6 tpa:t6/2/ (cockroach), /khej4 len4/2/ (a mythical animal

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two /tpi: /. In other words, /ka:t tpa:t / (cockroach) is a disyllabic morpheme, and consists of

two /tpi:6/. A /Dpi:6/ does not only refer to a monosyllable in writing which is monographic, it is commonly translated as 'character1, but can also refer to a monosyllable in spoken Chinese.

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One can ask, "/ka:t tpa:t ni: loe:g ko: tek_ti:m qe: /?" (cockroach-these-two-measure-

characters-how-write - How do [you] write the two characters - (cockroach)?) A Cantonese idiom describing someone who does not have clear articulation for every single word is /ka:w3 tq\l. pet1 tpheg1/ or /ka:w3 tsi^ m4 tpheg1/ (bite-word-not-clear). In English, the 'four

letter word' is a euphemism for a swear word. In Cantonese, the equivalent expression is

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/?a:m tdj_ keg / (three-word-scripture) as in /k ey ko:g pa:m teiL. keg / (he-utters-three-

words-scripture - he utters the 'four letter word'). So far, it seems clear that a Api:6/ in Cantonese is not only a written unit, i.e., a character, but also refers to a spoken unit which consists of one morpheme and one syllable, which is what a child learns to speak, and what a university counts for the maximum or minimum length of dissertations.

Even though every monosyllabic morpheme can be uttered in isolation, in an utterance some of them need to combine with another morpheme in order to be freed, as /m4/ (not) in /m4

tpheg1/ (not-clear). However, in a loose sense, if we regard the English word 'the' or 'is' as a word which satisfies the criterion of a 'free form' in actual speech (as classified by Bloomfield - p.179), all Cantonese /td:6/ including particles, suffixes, measures and the negation /m4/are

free and thus are words. All Cantonese Ad:6/ also satisfy another criterion, that is

interruptibiiity. For example, /m4 tcheg1/ (not-clear) can be broken up by /ht?j6 kej2/ (is-quite)

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into /m hej kej tc eg / (not-is-quite-clear - not quite clear). Even polysyllabic

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monomorphemes can also be interrupted by other morphemes. For example, /ka:t tpa:t /

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(cockroach) can be broken up by /nrnst js: / (what-stuff) into /ka:t rrn?t j'e: tpa:t / ('cock'-

3.2.3. /tahi:4/(W ord)

The Cantonese word / t d:6/ therefore, seems to correspond to the English word 'word' very

well until the English term 'compound word' appears. An example of a compound word in English is a lexical item such as 'tea-bag'. However, the compound /teha:4 pa:w1/ (tea-bag)

in Chinese consists of two /td:6/, which is in this sense two words and is called a disyllabic

/tphi:4/. The term /tphi:4/ is a learned term devised by modern Chinese grammarians (Chao 1947: 37). It is regarded as the smallest unit of free form and ’semi-free’ form in speech. It covers compound words but also monosyllabic simple words. Take the examples from above, /tpha:4/ (tea) is a /tphi:4/, /pa:w1/(bag) is a /tehi:4/, /teha:4 pa:w1/ (tea-bag) is also a /tphi:4/;

/ka:t6 tpa:t6/2 / (cockroach) is a /tchi:4/, /m4/ (not) is a /tphi:4/, /tpheg1/ (clear) is also a /tphi:4/.

/tcha:4/ (tea) is an example of free form and /m4/ (not) is an example of semi-free form.

/tphi:4/, in this sense, is a term used by linguists. It is not in general use, unlike the English

word 'word'. Traditionally, /tphi:4/ refers to a particular kind of poetry with fixed rhyme

schemes. Such a rhyme scheme is a so-called /tchi:4 ti:w6/ (poetry-rhyme), whereas /td:6

ti:w6/ (word-rhyme) refers to syllable tone. /tphi:4/ also refers to an expression consisting of

words as in /tchi:4 pet1 ta:t3 ji:3/ (expression-not-reach-meaning - the words fail to convey the

idea) or /tehow3 tchi:4 put1 to:q3 / (arrange-words-not-appropriate - inappropriate wording). But

if one wants to say 'someone used a wrong word', he has to say /jog6 t$ho:3 td:6/ (use-wrong-

word) to refer to a single syllable word which is incorrectly used. As mentioned above, /tphi:4/ 6

can refer to an expression consisting of more than one / t d : /, and includes compounds, such

as /<?y:1 tho:j2/ (write-table - desk, in which both constituents are roots), and derived words

such as /tho:j2 teuj2/ (table-nominal suffix with a meaning of diminish - small table, in which

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the /tctjj / is a suffix with the root /t o:j /), A compound differs from a complex compound

such as /ta:j6 ho:k6 ko:q2 d : 1/ (big-study-talk-teacher - university lecturer), in which, /ta:j6

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lecturer) is also a subordinate compound, /ta:j6 ho:k6/ modifies /ko:g2 pi:1/, /ta:j6 ho:k6 ko:q2

pi:1/ is a subordinate complex compound. It is possible to have a pause in between two compounds but not within a compound. In standard romanisation - pinyin, not graphs - of Mandarin, a space is written in between the two compounds of a complex compound but not within a compound. A complex compound is called /tphi:4 jow2/ (/jow2/ means 'group' - a

group of /tphi:4/).

3.2.4. /tpi:6/ and /tphi:4/ in Standard Work of Scholarship

There are two types of dictionaries of Chinese which are both called 'dictionary' in English.

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One is /td: ti:n /, one is /tc i: ti:n / (/ti:n / means standard work of scholarship). In a /td:

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ti:n /, every entry is a /td : /, compounds and phrases are given only for the purpose of

exemplyfing the different meanings of the /td :6/, as illustrated by the "/tQOg1 wa:4 cun1 tsiL.

ti:n2/" (Zhonghua Xin Zidian (China New Dictionary) 1976). In a /tchi:4 ti:n2/, under the

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heading of every single /td : /, all possible compounds, commonly used complex compounds

or phrases which consist of or begin with the same entry are listed, as the "/ho:n3 jy:5 tchi:4

ti:n2/ " (Hanyu Cidian (Chinese Dictionary) 1990). A syllabary in Chinese by no means has to

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be called /td: wu:j / (/wu:j / means collection), as the 7k o:k jum jy:t jum po:k jum &li_

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wu:j r (Guoyin Yueyin Suoyin Zihui (A Chinese Syllabary Pronounced According to Mandarin and Cantonese) 1987). There are some scholars who take a different view of the distinction between /t d :6/ and /tphi:4/ that we cannot ignore. Lii collects 800 /tphi:4/ in his /ji:n6 to:]6 ho:n3

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jy: pa:t pa:k tc i: / (Xiandai Hanyu Babai Ci (The Eight Hundred Modern Chinese Words) h 4

1980), in which he defines /tp i: / as including free form and semi-free form morphemes.

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fay: / (book) is an example given for the former and a particle /ns: / for the latter (p.4). He

does not define /tpi:6/ but uses it as the written form for morphemes (p.4). Thus, his 800

1 h 2 2 1 w 2 1 2 h 4 2 /ho:j tp i: / (open-begin - beginning). In their /ko:g <?ek k o:g teuw wa: tc i: ti:n / (Gangshi Guangzhouhua Cidian (HongKong Cantonese Dictionary) 1999), Cheung and Ni collect 7000 entries of /tehi:4/ including monosyllables and polysyllables such as '/few5 thew4

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Wtfj /, /mow mej \&en /' (have-head-brave, -no-tail-position - Fine start, poor finish).

3.2.5. Morpheme, Syllable, Single Word, Compound Word, Complex Compound Word, Phrase, Set Phrase and Expression

So far, I presume it has become clear that the word 'word* in English can be translated into either /tci:8/ or /tahi:4/ in Cantonese: /tci:6/ refers to a word which consists of one morpheme, one syllable, which can be uttered in isolation and is written with a single character - 1 call it a

simple word; whereas /tqhi:4/ refers to an expression which has a lexical meaning and consists of more than one syllable, more than one morpheme, and where a pause can be possibly inserted at the right-end boundary when in a string of words - 1 call this a compound

word. In other words, a word can refer to a simple word /tpi:6/ or a compound word /tphi:4/. Idioms in Chinese usually consist of four syllables (but not necessarily in the last two cases below) and are commonly called /tehi:4/, as /peg4 jy:5 tehi:4/ (/peg4 jy:5/ means 'fixed sayings'),

/h^w2 jy:5 tgVV (/fmw2 jy:5/ means 'verbal') and /tpok6 jy:5 tchi:4/ (/tpok6 jy:5/ means

'colloquial'). They are called /tehi:4/. However, they are not necessarily compounds, they could be set phrases. These set phrases have a lexical meaning, they can be phrase-words and are usually included in dictionaries. /tehi:4/ seems to have a looser sense of including compounds and derived words plus set phrases. However, I only use the English word 'word' to refer to simple words, compound words, complex compound words and derived words in Cantonese. I use the English word 'phrase' to refer to any phrases in Cantonese, including set phrases or just a phrase such as /ni:1 tcoe:g1 tho:j2/ (this-measure-table - this table), which

are considered to be a larger free form but smaller than a clause (cf. Bloomfield 1935: 185). Sometimes it is very difficult to draw a clear line between a compound and a phrase. /ta:j

(big-table) is a phrase because it has no added meaning beyond the literal meaning as in big dog, big house, etc. But set phrases do have a lexical meaning. The term 'expression' seems to fit very well to include words and phrases which consist of more than one morpheme, (cf. Bloomfield 1935: 196 and Chao 1968: 258).

3.3. PROMINENCE IN CANTONESE