Red PAN Bluetooth

In recent years the work of a number of researchers in the field of language acquisition, has greatly influenced our understanding of how children learn oral language. Smith (1978), Holdaway (1979) and, more recently, Cambourne (1988) appear to have reached agreement about certain factors connected with the ways in which children learn oral language. These factors have had a major impact on the way in which we think about children’s language acquisition in its spoken form and, consequently, the way in which we think about children’s acquisition of the written form of language. This has resulted in a number of initiatives within education with particular reference to the understanding of the development of literacy skills in children. Consequently, the study of how children acquire language has provided the basis for the development of a model of learning in a number of curriculum areas.

In the view of these researchers, learning is regarded as a natural behaviour. ‘Learning is not an occasional event, to be stimulated, provoked or reinforced. Learning is what the brain does naturally’ (Smith, 1980:88). Natural, or developmental learning, as Holdaway (1979) describes it, has a number of characteristics which are apparent, regardless of the skills to be acquired.

Perhaps the most powerful example of natural learning is that of the young child learning to talk. Children acquire this skill with no apparent formal instruction and, provided there are no physical or mental impediments, are competent and successful in the acquisition and execution of this skill. As Cambourne (1988) states: ‘Learning how to talk…is a stunning intellectual achievement, almost universally successful, extremely rapid, usually effortless, painless and durable’.

A number of factors emerge as commonalities in the development of the skill of talking. The child is in a supportive environment, surrounded by models of the skills to be acquired, in action. These models occur in a natural and meaningful context, and are part of the fabric of the child’s life. Attempts by the child to copy the skills are encouraged, indeed celebrated, however far from the ‘correct’ response the initial attempt may have been. Such encouragement is interactional and non-judgemental, as the child’s attempts at language are responded to, and at times, extended. The child is universally expected to acquire the skills with a resultant diminution of feelings of fear or negativity on the part of the learner.

The child is encouraged to operate independently, and to take responsibility for his learning and is able to practise the skill at his own pace. Holdaway describes this type of learning as:

highly individual and non-competitive; it is short on teaching and long on learning; it is self-regulated rather than adult-regulated; it goes hand in hand with the fulfilment of real life purposes; it emulates the behaviour of people who model the skill in natural use.

(Holdaway, 1979:14) From these observations and understandings of how a child acquires spoken language, Holdaway (1979) developed a model for natural language learning of which the following summarizes the major characteristics:

• The learning begins with immersion in an environment in which the skill is being used in purposeful ways.

• The environment is an emulative rather than an instructional one, providing lively examples of the skill in action.

• Reinforcement contingencies, both intrinsic and extrinsic, approach the ideal of immediate rewards for almost every approximation regardless of the distance of the initial response from the ideal response.

• Bad approximations…are not reinforced.

• Practice of the task is determined largely by the learner.

• The environment is secure and supportive…free from any threat associated with the learning task.

• Development tends to proceed continuously in an orderly sequence marked by considerable difference from individual to individual.

(ibid.: 23) Cambourne (1988) has further refined this model of natural language learning and has identified a number of conditions which are fundamental to the development of learning as a natural behaviour. While relating the natural learning model specifically to the acquisition of literacy, it is Cambourne’s belief that these conditions are not exclusively those of language learning, but provide a framework for learning in general. Cambourne believes:

that there is a single unitary very effective process of learning which is exemplified by learning to talk and, that over the long period of human evolution, the brain has evolved so that it prefers to learn this way and that most learning, especially language-related learning, proceeds most effectively under these conditions.

(Cambourne, 1988:42)

These conditions: immersion; demonstration; engagement; expectation; responsibility; approximation; and use and response have formed the basis of a number of literacy programmes in Tasmanian schools. The development of teaching strategies and learning experiences which emulate the natural way in which children acquire oral language has had a major impact not only on the ways in which literacy skills are taught, but has also affected changes in the ways in which learning and teaching are regarded in other curriculum areas, for example, in the Arts Education areas of the Visual Arts (Education Department of Tasmania, 1988); Expressive Movement (Education Department of Tasmania, 1980a); Experiential Drama (Education Department of Tasmania, 1980b); Music (Department of Education and the Arts, 1990); and Mathematics (Edmunds and Stoessinger, 1987). Although the conditions which are characteristic of the natural development of children’s language acquisition may not be exactly replicated within the classroom, teachers may draw on the principles which are exemplified by them.

When the conditions described above are considered within the context of music education, the basis for the development of a powerful curriculum model is provided. This curriculum model, reflective of Cambourne’s (1988) belief in a single process of learning, is applicable at all levels of education, and is not restricted to a specific range defined by age or ability. In the following discussion, each of the conditions identified by Cambourne are discussed and related specifically to music education.

IMMERSION

Immersion in an environment which is rich in musical experiences is perhaps one of the most important prerequisites for developing the understandings and skills necessary for learning to use and control the materials of music. Initially, this immersion may take the form of exposing children to appropriate sound-making materials. A range of interesting tuned and untuned percussion instruments of good quality provides children with immense possibilities for developing an original and individual vocabulary of sound, a fundamental aspect of the development of understanding in music.

A popular activity in the music classroom has been that of making musical instruments. Often the instruments which result from these activities bear only an outward resemblance to a musical instrument. For example, suggestions such as the manufacture of a tambourine by gluing two paper plates together and attaching bottle tops to the outer edges, while producing an object which resembles a tambourine, do not in any way address the sound-producing properties of the instruments in question. The imposition of materials foreign to ‘serious’ or ‘adult’ music-making, such as shakers made from bottles filled with pebbles, and similar home-made instruments may appear irrelevant and pointless to the learner when attempting to develop original compositions. Therefore, it is essential that children have the opportunity to deal with appropriate materials at

all times. Although valid music compositions may result from the employment of materials which are not initially considered to be musical instruments, it is suggested that these compositions are usually the work of composers who have an extensive knowledge of the concepts of music, and are therefore able to address these concepts through the innovative use of unusual sound-making materials.

Quality examples of the work of adult and professional musicians which illustrate a wide range of musical styles and forms should be provided in order to encourage children to develop an understanding of the diversity of musical experiences and opportunities which may be made available to them.

When considering the concept of immersion, it must be emphasized that the notions of opportunities for engagement in musical experience, and availability of musical materials, are paramount. Children may be engaged in musical experience through listening to a performance, developing an original composition, participating in an ensemble, following a notation, devising a notation, singing a song, or sharing a composition with peers. Immersion needs to be sustained and sequential in order to be effective. Isolated incidents which occur at irregular intervals throughout the child’s learning experiences may be regarded as transitory and ineffectual in developing understanding. Furthermore, children need opportunities to talk about music, to learn about music from other cultures and times and to become familiar with the materials and processes of music-making.

DEMONSTRATION

Demonstrations may be regarded as the models of behaviours from which we learn. These demonstrations do not necessarily have to take the form of a series of actions, such as a live performance, or the construction of a composition, but may be embedded in the artefacts which arise from these actions. The score of a composition, whether notated conventionally or with graphic notation, is a demonstration in itself of a musical process. Similarly, a recording of a performance, an artefact which preserves the most fundamental of musical behaviours, that of playing, is a powerful demonstration. Engagement with the artefact is synonymous with engagement in a specific set of actions. ‘The world continually provides demonstrations, through people and through their products, by acts and by artefacts…’ (Smith, 1980:89), and it is when we engage with one of those demonstrations which surround us, that we may begin to internalize some aspect of that specific demonstration.

When the above is taken into consideration, theoretically everything that occurs in the classroom is a demonstration. However, learners will only engage with those demonstrations that are perceived to be relevant to their needs and interests. Learners may select, interpret, organize and reorient their thinking through engagement with demonstrations. For example, the observation of the variety of ways in which a peer produces sound from an instrument, or the

demonstration of some alternative ways of notating duration, may influence the learner’s subsequent work. The imitative use of stylistic musical conventions within a student’s composition provides an example of the importance of demonstrations in developing musical understandings. As Bunting states: ‘a composer may seek out new ideas by speculating on accepted musical conventions’ (in Swanwick and Tillman, 1986:324).

When engaged in music experiences, the individual takes up a number of roles. These roles are described by Swanwick (1979) as those of the composer, the auditor and the performer and are based on the areas of music experience of composition, audition and performance (CAP). Swanwick expands on these three areas of music experience by including those of literature studies, that is the ‘literature of and about music’ (1979:45) and skill acquisition, specifically those relating to aural, instrumental and notational issues (CLASP). In order to develop the skills and understandings associated with music education, children need to be immersed in an environment rich in musical experiences, where all the skills are being used in meaningful and purposeful ways, and where they are encouraged to take on all the roles of musical experience, that is, those of composer, auditor and performer. Ideally, this environment should include lively demonstrations of the areas of musical experience by professionals, amateurs, peers and people who play a significant role in the lives of children, such as parents and teachers. For example, a teacher who listens to a composition with the children in her care, rather than using such times as an opportunity to complete another task (for example, completing the roll!) is effectively demonstrating one of the many purposes of music.

Children should be able not only to observe professionals at work, such as performers or composers, but to be able to talk with them, discuss their lives and their work, and meet with examples of their work on a reasonably regular basis. In this manner, children may learn that there is a variety of ways of approaching the medium, and seemingly limitless possibilities for the use of the materials of music. Techniques used by professional composers, such as the keeping of notebooks in which to notate ideas or motives, or the recording of original work, may be adopted by children, encouraging them to listen to their environment and their musical experiences more acutely and more accurately.

Performances from visiting artists, local identities and fellow students; listening experiences which expose children to a variety of musical forms and styles; opportunities to participate in a range of musical experiences; and, perhaps most importantly, the opportunity to experiment with the materials of music in order to discover their possibilities and limitations, provide children with a number of examples of how music may become meaningful to them, and a powerful part of their daily lives.

ENGAGEMENT

Immersion and demonstration may be considered to be necessary conditions within the learning environment. However, in themselves, they may not be sufficient to ensure that any learning takes place. Some children may be patient observers of numerous demonstrations, and be immersed in an environment rich in musical experience, and yet appear to be unable to engage meaningfully with any of these experiences, incapable of making them ‘their own’.

Prior to engagement occurring, a number of factors need to be taken into consideration. Children need to perceive themselves as potential ‘doers’ of whatever is being demonstrated; as potential musicians, composers and auditors. This is one of the most important factors; that children have confidence in their ability to make a statement in music which will be accepted, regardless of the sophistication, or simplicity of the response. Children need to perceive that the acquisition of the skills being demonstrated is personally meaningful, and that they may ‘…somehow further the purposes of their lives’ (Cambourne, 1988: 52). Finally, children should feel that any ‘risks’ associated with the task are endurable, and that it is safe to attempt the task.

EXPECTATIONS

Expectations are messages provided by the teacher, that communicate the confidence that the teacher displays in the child’s abilities to be ultimately successful, and as such are fundamental aspects of the process of engagement. It is important that the teacher conveys to children that the development of an understanding of music, its materials and processes and the ability to use these purposefully, are potentially some of the most important things in their lives.

Children need to perceive that the skills and understandings that they are trying to master are valuable, relevant, functional and useful. They need to develop an understanding of music as a fundamental aspect of human culture that empowers the individual to articulate original statements, and to communicate meanings through another medium. The transmission to the learner of the message that music is more than vicarious entertainment; that it is a way of thinking and a way of knowing is essential.

Expectations are intimately connected to the development of self-esteem in the child, and the establishment of a relationship founded in trust and mutual respect between the teacher and the child. The teacher needs to know each individual in the class, and plan appropriately, in order to ascertain expectations which are pertinent to the individual’s needs. Motivational factors are highly relevant in this context, and learning experiences which provide the opportunity for individual problem-solving may be regarded as the most intrinsically satisfying. Children involved in openended problem solving, are required to engage in a number of intellectual processes such as inferring, envisioning possibilities and

exploring possible courses of action whilst developing the skills and techniques which will enable them to arrive at a satisfying response.

RESPONSIBILITY

The fostering of independent learners who are capable of identifying problems, determining courses of action and subsequently implementing appropriate strategies in order to seek a resolution to the problem may be regarded as one of the responsibilities of the teacher. Evaluation of the effectiveness of a solution is also an important aspect of the process, and it is the teacher’s task to ensure that the learner is provided with a safe and supportive environment which is conducive to the promotion of such decision-making.

In order to promote independent learning, individuals need to be given opportunities to operate independently. Children need to be placed in situations where it is necessary to make decisions independently of the teacher. The implication for the teacher is that the child must be trusted to make some decisions independently, to engage with demonstrations and to select from those demonstrations those aspects which are perceived to be most pertinent at that time, consequently deciding what is most necessary to explore further.

Of course, within the context of music this does not mean that the teacher abandons the child after making sure that a sufficient number of instruments are available! Initially it may mean that materials are provided for guided exploratory experiences to enable the child to become familiar with and develop the ability to control the characteristics of the medium. When the child has developed a sufficient vocabulary of possibilities, a number of simple open- ended challenges designed by the teacher which may be met at the individual’s level of understanding and experience may be provided. Gradually, challenges of increasing complexity may be introduced until the child is capable of initiating his or her own musical statements.

Assistance from an expert, often the teacher, or a peer whose musical capacities are more highly developed, should be available at all times. The experience of explaining, or teaching an item to another is often instrumental in clarifying the issues within the mind of the learner, and peer tutoring should be encouraged as a commonplace occurrence within the learning environment. When tutoring a peer, emphasis needs to be placed upon the processes of problem-solving, not upon the provision of a solution. Consideration of the above factors should lead to a learning environment in which the learner has a number of options from which to choose, and where decision-making becomes an integral part of the learning process.

APPROXIMATION

In its most basic form, the condition of ‘approximation’ may be considered as the franchise to ‘have a go’. Within any learning environment, it is evident that the

opportunity to ‘have a go’, to attempt an approximation, is crucial to the learning process. It is only through the element of approximation that the learner has an opportunity to evaluate his work and its proximity to the desired outcome, and, as a result, refine the response in an effort to meet the desired response more accurately. In a more regimented view, approximation may be defined as ‘mistakes’. However, when learning is regarded as a problem-solving experience in which the individual is involved in the process of testing out a number of possible solutions to a problem, it becomes evident that approximations, or