Reestructuración de la mensajería interna para DEB

The reality of women‘s lives remains invisible to men and women alike and this invisibility persists at all levels beginning with the family to the nation. Although geographically men and women share the same space, they live in different worlds.

The mere fact that ―Women hold up half the sky‖- does not appear to give them a position of dignity and equality. True, those over the year‘s women have made great strides in many areas with notable progress in reducing some gender gaps. Yet, ‗the afflicted world in which we live is characterized by deeply unequal sharing of the burden of adversities between women and men‘. Sprawling inequalities persist in their access to education, health care, physical and financial resources and opportunities in the political, economic, social and cultural spheres.

‗Gender inequality holds back the growth of individuals, the development of nations and the evolution of societies to the disadvantage of both men and women‘.

Gender issues are not simply talking about women‘s issues. Understanding gender means understanding opportunities, constraints and the impact of change as they affect both men and women.

The impact of inequality is reflected in the status of women worldwide and in India. The country can boast of a decade of reforms. But of what consequence? Most of these programs remain limited to the urban population. The rural belts as well as the unskilled urban wage workers go unnoticed and unaffected. The government has proposed and launched a number of programs for the empowerment of women, including the observance of the year 2001 as the year of women‘s empowerment. It was said, ―Our vision in the new century is of a nation where women are equal partners with men.‖ Many new projects were launched like Swa Shakti and Stree Shakti for women‘s empowerment; Swayamsidha to benefit 100,000 women through micro-credit programs and Balika Samridhi Yojana for the girl child. However, apart from a lot of hoopla and the accompanying verbal diarrhoea, not much was registered.

There are those who point to an unfounded development in the social position of women through the achievements of the likes of Indra Nooyi. However, one swallow alone doesn‘t make a summer. We cannot deny that there have been changes. These

changes have been limited to the upper crust of the social order. What we need to realize is that any new program has to overcome the centuries-old hold of subjugation and marginalization of women.

The female population of the country rose marginally from 48.1 per cent of the total population in 1991 to 48.3 percent of the total population in 2001. In absolute numbers, this implies an increase by 89.4 million from 407.1 million in 1991 to 496 million in 2001. The growth rate of female population for the 1991-2001 decade was 23.08, slightly higher than the male population decennial growth rate of 22.26. The expectancy of life at birth has been rising steadily for women. It increased from 58.6 in 1987-91 to 66.91 in 2001-06, and is higher than the male life expectancy of 63.87.

However, demographic imbalances between men and women continue to exist, even worse, in certain regions.

While the sex ratio improved slightly from 927 in 1991 to 933 in 2001, the Child Sex Ratio registered a startling decline. The 0-6 sex ratio plummeted from 945 in 1991 to 927 in 2001. The 2003-05 sex ratio at birth is even lower at 880. The child sex ratio for Muslims is much higher at 986, compared to 931 among SC/STs at 914 among other Hindus. The child sex ratio continues to fall and is below 900 in economically prosperous states like Punjab (793), Delhi (865), Haryana (820) and Gujarat (878). During the decade 1991-2001, 70 districts in 16 States and Union Territories have recorded more than 50 points decline in sex ratio. The lowest ratio recorded is 754 in Fatehgarh Sahib District in Punjab (2003, RGI Census Commissioner, India-missing-Mapping the Adverse Child Sex Ratio in India). As a result of this declining sex ratio, millions of girls/women are missing in India.

While the mean age of marriage of women has increased from 15.5 years in 1961 to 19.5 in 1997, 44.5% of women are still married by the age of 18. Certain states have a much higher percentage of underage marriage in girls such as Jharkhand (61.2%), Bihar (60.3%) and Rajasthan (57.1%).

The high rates of anemia, malnutrition, HIV/AIDS in women, MMR, IMR are a grave cause for concern.

Within a period of seven years (1998-99 to 2005-06), anemia in pregnant women have risen from 49.7% to 57.9%, and in ever-married women from 51.8% to 56.2% as per NFHS-3. This disturbing trend has also exacerbated anemia in children by 5 percentage points to 79.2%. The high prevalence of anemia is also partially responsible for the high MMR. Moreover, only 22% of mothers consumed IFA tablets

for 90 days or more, and only half of them received at least 3 ante-natal care visits.

Although MMR has fallen from 407 in 1998 to 301 in 2001-2003, states like Uttar Pradesh & Uttaranchal and Assam have MMRs as high as 517 and 490 respectively.

There is also a growing feminization of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. NACO estimates that 1 in 3 persons living with HIV in India is a woman. The burden on women is also distressing – an NCAER survey shows that women account for more than 70% of the caregivers, 21% of whom are HIV positive themselves. A more daunting finding is that nearly 60% of HIV-positive widows are less than 30 years of age and live with their natal families as 91% of them receive no financial support from their marital homes.

The 2001 Census recorded a significant increase in literacy rates (from 52.21% in 1991 to 65.38% in 2001) particularly female literacy rates which increased to 54.16% (Table-4). The increase in female literacy rates was 14.87% in 1991-2001 compared to 9.53% between 1981-1991. For the first time, the absolute numbers of illiterate women declined from 200.7 million in 1991 to 190 million in 2001.

Similarly, the Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for girls has increased to 89.87%, compared to 96.91% for boys.

Drop-out rates have also followed the same encouraging trend and have reduced at all levels of education. Nevertheless, dropout rates remain high and the increase dramatically with level of education. While dropout rate for girls was 25.4%

at the primary level in 2004-05, they are as high as 63.88% at the secondary level.

Dropout rates are substantially higher for categories like SC and ST girls at 75.5%

and 81.2%.

The number of women in higher education has also increased from 13.6 lakhs or 33% of students in 1990-91 to 34.4 lakhs or 40% of students in 2004-05.

Disparities are most apparent in professional and higher education. For example of the total students from general category enrolled for B.A. degree in 2004-05, 41.2% were women category. Similarly, only 36.4% of the SC students and 34.4% of ST students enrolled in B.A were women during the same year.

The gender gap between male (75.85%) and female (54.16%) literacy rates remains high at 21.70 as per 2001 Census. The gender gap is even more than 24 for SCs and STs. There is a marked rural-urban divide as the female literacy rate is higher in urban areas at 73% compared to 46% in rural areas. There are 253 districts in India where female literacy rate is below 50%. Inter-state variations also persist – Kerala

continues to have the highest female literacy rate of 87.7% whereas Bihar has the lowest at 33.1%.

According to Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India – A Report – November 2006, the educational status of Muslim and SC/ST women in particular is a major cause of concern. The literacy rate figures for Muslim, SC and ST women are 50%, 47.1% and 34.8% respectively. At the bottom of the rung are Muslim and SC/ST women in rural areas whose literacy rates are 43% and 36% respectively. It should also be noted that disparities increase with the level of schooling. At the basic level of literacy, Muslim women were 11% worse off than non-Muslims. However, the difference widened to 19% at the middle school level, 35% at Class- X, 45% at Class-12, and 63% for graduates and above as per Census 2001.

There has been a slight increase in the female work participation rate both in rural and urban areas. It is estimated that 118 million workers or 97% of the female work force are involved in the unorganized sector. The non agriculture segment of the informal sector alone engages 27 million workers or 23% of the female work.

Agriculture is, therefore, the main employer of women informal workers. 75% of the total female work force and 85% of rural women are employed in agriculture, as wage workers or workers on their own/contracted household farms. As men migrate and move to non-farm jobs, there has also been an increasing feminization of agriculture.

90% of those employed in the manufacturing and construction are also in the unorganized sector. The seasonality of work in these sectors and the lack of other avenues of work make women vulnerable to a range of exploitative practices.

Although they make a huge contribution to the national economy, these women remain the poorest and most vulnerable.

Around 57% of women also fall into the category of home-based workers.

Lack of qualifications and training, absence of childcare support, loss of formal employment, social and cultural constraints and absence of alternatives are some of the reasons women turn to home based work. With home based work being the only alternative for the poorest communities, it is not confined only to women but also involves children, especially girls. There are far fewer women in the paid workforce than there are men. Women work is undervalued and unrecognized. Women work longer hours than men, and carry the major share of household and community work,

which is unpaid and invisible. Women generally earn a far lower wage than men doing the same work. In no State do women and men earn equal wages in agriculture.

Every form of violence against women has been increasing steadily including cases of rapes, abduction, trafficking, dowry deaths, domestic violence and witch-hunting. Rape cases accounted for 22% of total crimes against women during 2005. In 84-89% of the rape cases in the years 2002-04, the victim knew the offenders. In 9%

of the cases, the offenders included the father or another family member or close relatives. Dowry deaths also rose from 6822 in 2002 to 7026 in 2004. Cases of dowry deaths in 2005 have been highest in Uttar Pradesh, followed by Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Nevertheless, the conviction rate for rape cases remains low at around 25%.

For a country that registers two million cases of female infanticide and nearly 5000 dowry deaths ever year, the less spoken on the status of its women, the better.

On the face of it, the current president‘s ‗greetings and felicitations (on the occasion of International Women‘s Day) to all Indian women for shaping the destiny of the country rings hollow. Looking back we find an ancient Bharat set up on the principles laid down by Manu who saw women as ‗worthy of worship‘. Even today most of the Hindu deities are female figures that are hailed as ‗mata‘ or ‗maa‘. But that is about it.

Steer away from the altars and come down to the concrete houses to find a very different reality.

When it comes to conviction against the cases registered the situation is still alarming. On an average conviction rate against the cases registered is in the range of 18 to 35 in major crimes like kidnapping and abduction, dowry deaths, rape, molestation, cruelty by husband and relatives etc.

Around 37% of women are victims of spousal violence. More than half of all Indian women believe that husbands can beat wives if they have an appropriate reason for doing so.

In Constitution of India, gender equality is provided under the provisions. If the principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution, then why are Indian women treated as second citizens in their own country? The Constitution officially grants equality to women and also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women. However, the varied forms of discrimination that women in India are subject to are far from positive.

It is claimed that from the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards, there has been a marked shift in the approach to women‘s issues from welfare to development.

Where is the development? Yes, the status of the urban woman has shown some improvement but the changes in their lifestyle were not coupled by changes in the general mindset of the people in our patriarchal society. Thus, some laws should have been framed for the protection of the newly emancipated and urbanized Indian women. What is the percentage of urban women in India, anyway? What about the rest? These privileged few would have prospered with or without the laws. Has there been any significant change in the status of rural women after the Fifth Five Year Plan?

The National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. ―The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the Constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local levels.‖ These reserved seats often go unoccupied or are taken up by male candidates because women rarely contest for such seats. Why? The mere existence of laws cannot automatically bring about a revolutionary change in the society. In a country where women have no control over their own lives and do not even have the decision-making power in their own household, do you think they will be encouraged to join local governing bodies? In India gender disparity is found everywhere. The declining ratio of the female population, in the last few decades is a proof of this. The stereotypical image of a woman haunts her everywhere. Domestic violence is commonplace. The underlying causes of gender inequality are related to the socio-economic framework of India. As a result, the women belonging to the weaker sections of the society i.e. the Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes/ Other backward Classes and minorities, do not have easy access to education, health and other productive resources. Therefore, they remain largely marginalized, poor and socially isolated.

Article 14 in the Indian Constitution ensures equality in political, economic and social spheres. Article 16 provides for equality of opportunities in matters of public appointment for all citizens. However, the ratio of women in Politics is far less as compared to men. How many women hold positions of power in government run institutions? Single women do not get jobs easily because the employers fear that they

might get married and quit. They also find it hard to get rented accommodation whereas that is not the case with single men. Cricket is a religion in India. Is the government promoting cricket for women or any other form of team sport for women for that matter?

Article 15 prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex etc. There are certain places of worship in South India where women are not allowed entry. Advertisements of 'Fairness' creams are aired on television without any restrictions. It is shown in these ad-films that the 'brown' Indian woman can't get a job, can't find a man and is generally looked down upon by everyone but when she becomes fairer, the story changes.

There has been an alarming rise in the atrocities committed against women.

While the constitution guarantees equal opportunity, patriarchy asserts itself through legal loopholes to consolidate the age-old domination. India has a long history of activism for women's welfare and rights. A range of government programs have been launched to increase economic opportunity for women, although there appear to be no existing programs to address the cultural and traditional discrimination against women. Be it education, health care, nutrition, property rights, acknowledgment of labour or life security, women find themselves at the lower rungs of the ladder.

Article 15 (3) of the Indian Constitution allows the State to make any special provision for women and children. Wife bashing is a favorite sport in India. Women are subject to physical and mental torture by their husbands and their families.

Women and children are always under the control of the ‗Male‘ head of the family. A child is identified by his father‘s name in this country. Whereas in western countries, the mother's name forms, the middle name, of a child. Article 39(a) mentions that the State will direct its policies towards securing all citizens, men and women, the right to means of livelihood while Article 39 (c) ensures equal pay for equal work. When a male government employee is transferred from one place to another, is his wife given a new job in the new place? Her career goals are of little importance to anyone. She can be displaced and uprooted anytime! The daily wages of women labourers in India are lesser than that of male menial workers. Bollywood Actresses also get less money as compared their male counterparts.

Article 42 directs the State to ensure just and humane working conditions.

More often than not, women are exploited by their bosses. It is believed that women who keep their bosses happy get promotions very easily in the Corporate world! What

about the others? Male colleagues never fail to make passes at women. Women have to put up with their bawdy jokes, lascivious remarks and glares, all the time. The plight of women labourers at construction sites, tea and rubber plantations etc, cannot even be described.

The constitution imposes a fundamental duty on every citizen through Article 51 (A) (e) to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women. What is the government doing about eve-teasing? Can a woman spend an entire day on the streets of the National capital without getting a series of comments, derogatory to her dignity? Another law that protects women against a seemingly milder crime is Section 509 of the IPC. This law punishes individuals who have insulted the modesty of a woman. Offensive language, sounds, gestures and intrusion of a woman's privacy are punishable under this law. Outraging the modesty of a woman is also punishable under Section 354 of the IPC. Under this law, an individual who has assaulted a woman, used criminal force on her or outraged her modesty in any other way can be punished with imprisonment of up to 2 years. In fact the people who are employed by the State to ensure that people don‘t flout any rules, the policemen, are the ones who have given consequence to many crimes against women. Policemen are often found mouthing obscenities, glaring and passing bawdy remarks on women, not only on the roads, but also inside the police station. Many of our honourable politicians are also involved in all manner of crimes against women.

The second article of the Fourteenth Amendment introduced the word "male"

The second article of the Fourteenth Amendment introduced the word "male"