Thank you to all interview participants who took the time to share their experiences and photographs. Particular thanks to Elizabeth Rovere (SEGEMAR) for assistance and advice during fieldwork in Argentina. In Bariloche, we are grateful to Claudio Knaup
(former Civil Defense emergency expert) and Gabriel Cazalá (from the Municipality), Bariloche International Airport, Departamento Provincial de Aguas, INTA, Cooperativa de Electricidad Ltda., Guillermo Mujica, Carlos Fullana and Horacio Fernández. Also to Analena Santagni, Lic. Silvia Uber and Dra. Andrea Tombari (University of Rio Negro). In Villa la Angostura, Prof. Roberto Cacault, Marcos Arretche, Fernando Anselmi, Alejandro Murcia, Janet Galera, Alejandra Piedecasas, Andrés Sandoval, Hernán Garabali, Edgardo Carignano and Javier Abraham of EPEN provided us with valuable information including a field trip. From Jacobacci we would like to especially thank Ailén Rodriguez (Environmental Coordinator), Juan Escobar, Jose Mellado and Idelma Sarlor (Coop de Agua). From Zona IV (Neuquén) we thank Dra. Fernanda Hadad, Dr. Daniel Ricardi, Dr. Ricardo Powel and Dr. Alejandro Ojeda (From the Ministry of Health, Subsecretaria de Salud de Neuquén). Thank you to the many farmers for allowing interviews. And finally, particular thanks to David Dewar for outstanding translation support.
The New Zealand team was funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Science and Innovation through the Natural Hazard Research Platform subcontract: C05X0804. Additional support was provided by the New Zealand Earthquake Commission and Auckland Council through the DEVORA project. The INIBIOMA team was funded by CONICET (Special fund for the emergency and research funding PIP 2011 0311 GI) and by the Scientific Cooperation Agreement signed between Universidad Nacional del Comahue and the province of Neuquén.
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Chapter Three
Availability of ash leachates from the 2011
Cordón Caulle – Volcanic Complex eruption:
implications for agricultural systems
Heather M. Craig1, Carol Stewart2, Sally Gaw1, Thomas Wilson1, Christopher Oze1, Valeria Outes3, & Gustavo Villarosa3
1. University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand 2. Joint Centre for Disaster Research, Massey University Wellington Campus, Box 756,
Wellington, New Zealand
3. INIBIOMA (CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue), Quintral 1250, CP 8400, Bariloche, Argentina
Intended for submission to: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3.1 Abstract
The June 2011 Cordón Caulle Volcanic Complex (CC-VC) eruption sequence (Northern Patagonia, Chile) dispersed volcanic ash over a wide area (>75,000 km2), covering a large amount of productive agricultural land in two distinct environmental settings (temperate Andean and the semi-arid Argentine steppe). Freshly-deposited ash was sampled between 4 and 26 June 2011 at distances of 45 to 235 km from the volcano, and again between 4 and 13 March 2012 at comparable distances. Total and water- extractable element concentrations were determined in these samples to assess the agricultural hazards associated with readily available elements and evaluate any change in the leachable properties of the ashfall over nine months. Testing was undertaken according to a recent leachate analysis protocol endorsed by the International Volcanic Health Hazards Network with the aim of contributing further towards the refinement of loss thresholds for agriculture. Evaluation of the hazards from potentially toxic elements (e.g., Fluoride) showed that the widespread losses observed were most likely due to
physical impacts (such as smothering of feed, tooth abrasion and rumen blockages) rather than toxicity. Within the semi-arid zone, extensive wind-remobilisation of ash deposits occurred, but no difference was found between water-extractable element concentrations in epiclastic and in situ deposits collected in 2012. Water-extractable element concentrations in freshly collected (2011) ash showed no systematic trends with distance from the volcano. However, in the samples collected in 2012, concentrations of water-extractable elements were generally lower than in 2011, but increased with increasing distance from the volcano. This difference is readily explained in terms of climatic differences across the sampling transect, with water-extractable elements apparently conserved in the semi-arid conditions of the steppe. Undertaking a full assessment of environmentally available elements from the ashfall deposit is an essential input into holistic hazard assessments. A full understanding of the environmentally-available element composition of the ash is necessary for identifying potential toxicity issues, which may prompt specific mitigation measures. However, urgent work is needed to better define toxicity thresholds for pasture and livestock related to ash ingestion, to inform future hazard and risk assessments.
3.2 Introduction
Volcanic ashfall has the potential to cause widespread agricultural and economic losses. Productive, fertile soils are often formed from long-term weathering products of volcanic deposits (Shoji et al. 1993), therefore, agricultural areas are frequently concentrated in volcanically active regions leaving them vulnerable to widespread ashfall and other volcanic hazards. Agricultural losses can occur by both physical and chemical mechanisms (Ayris & Delmelle 2012). Crop losses have most commonly been due to physical overloading and burial or breakage of plants, and livestock deaths due to starvation, dehydration and gastrointestinal blockages (Wilson et al. 2011a; Cook et al. 1981; Cronin et al. 1998; Rubin et al. 1994). See Appendix A.1 for a review of previous events and associated impacts. Whilst there have been cases of animal poisoning due to ash toxicity, especially associated with fluoride and in some cases sulphur, these are relatively rare but high consequence events (Cronin et al. 2003; Thorarinsson & Sigvaldason 1971). The possible severe productivity losses and negative animal health
consequences means that despite its rarity, it is very common for farmers and agricultural managers to be concerned about F toxicity hazards following an ashfall (Cook et al. 1981; Cronin et al. 2003; Wilson et al. 2011a). Therefore, it is vital that water and total leachable F concentrations are assessed to accurately quantify potential toxicity and disseminate risk information to farmers.
Soil Vegetation Animal Health
Physical
Ash permeability Burial Rumen blockages
Cementation of ash Overloading Feed and water sources unpalatable Lowering of soil temperature Photosynthesis prevented Starvation
Positive mulching effect Tooth abrasion
Chemical
Soil acidity
Fluorosis Low Cation Exchange Capacity Chemical burns
Beneficial amounts of elements (i.e., S) Uptake of elements Addition of toxic elements Root apex damage
Figure 3.1: Outline of hazard and risk assessment factors needed to be considered in order to forecast and understand ashfall impacts to agricultural systems.
Risk assessments seek to predict the likelihood and consequences of a hazard by evaluating the pre-existing conditions in an area, as well as taking into account the hazardous nature of deposited ash (UN-ISDR 2009). To minimise agricultural losses after an explosive eruption a timely hazard and risk assessment of the fall deposit is needed to inform emergency response decision-making and recovery planning (Fig. 3.1). Such hazard assessments seek to quantify the properties of the ashfall deposit that are likely to cause impacts to the affected area. Understanding ashfall hazards allows for an assessment of risk and, if required, the initiation of risk management strategies. In the
case of volcanic ashfall on agricultural systems, a risk model needs to take into account the deposit properties (such as grain size, leachable elements, bulk composition, thickness, loading, etc.), and vulnerability characteristics such as the environmental, agricultural, political, social and economic characteristics of the affected region (Fig. 3.1). Traditionally, there has been a focus on correlating impacts with the thickness or loading of the deposit (Jenkins et al. 2014; Wilson et al. 2014). However, there is an increasing focus on incorporating other factors (such as the leachable element concentration) into risk models. Agricultural losses do not always occur immediately after the ashfall but can manifest over the following weeks, months and even years (Cook et al. 1981; Cronin et al. 2003; Wilson et al. 2011b). Understanding the hazard and risk to farming gives an opportunity to minimise medium to long-term impacts (Wilson et al. 2009). The development of a risk model and the identification of any risk factors ensures that management strategies can be targeted to specific problems in order to minimise losses (Alexander 2002).
Characterisation of the physical and chemical properties of the ash deposit is an important component of a risk assessment for agricultural systems affected by ashfall (Fig. 3.1). Whilst the collection of physical hazard data (such as mapping the extent, thickness, and grain size of the deposit) is undertaken using well-constrained methods, analysis of environmentally-available elements from the ash deposits has previously been done using a range of non-standardised methods. This lack of standardisation limits the usefulness of results and does not allow for comparison or knowledge transfer between events. These issues have led to the development of a standardised protocol for characterising leachable element properties of ashfall (Stewart et al., 2013).
This study presents data on leachable elements in both fresh and weathered (after approximately nine months) ash deposits, an evaluation of gastrically available F from fresh ash deposits, and surface water composition in the depositional zone of the ashfall. The impact of the ashfall on soil fertility has also been assessed, nine months after the eruption. This study applies the methods for assessing the hazard of leachable elements (developed by the International Volcanic Health Hazards Network and available at www.ivhhn.org; Stewart et al. 2013), after a large-scale, silicic eruption to an
agricultural context. The Cordón Caulle – Volcanic Complex (CC-VC) ashfall also provided an opportunity to assess the fate of tephra introduced elements from the same deposit over two contrasting environmental zones, as the fallout area extended from the temperate Andean zone to the semi-arid Argentine steppe.
3.3 2011 Cordón Caulle eruption
The Cordón Caulle Volcanic Complex (CC-VC) is located in the Southern Andes of Chile (40.5°S) (Francis 1976) (Fig. 3.2). It is comprised of a Pleistocene caldera at the north-western end (Cordillera Nevada), a Holocene stratovolcano (Puyehue), and the Cordón Caulle fissure complex that lies between these edifices. The 2,236 m high Puyehue stratovolcano formed on top of an older 5 km-wide caldera, is flat-topped and has a 2.4 km wide summit caldera. It lies to the south of the older, less-active Mencheca stratocone. The most recently active section of the complex is the Cordón Caulle fissure zone, although historic eruptions have often been incorrectly attributed to Puyehue (Singer et al. 2008; Smithsonian 2011).
Figure 3.2: Map of the study area showing ash thickness (in mm), main towns visited (black circles), and sites where ash and/or soil samples were taken (blue points), relative to the CC-VC location (black triangle).
The 2011 rhyolitic eruptive sequence was centred on the Cordón Caulle fissure zone (Schipper et al. 2012). The active sequence started on 27 April 2011 when the Observatorio Volcanológico de los Andes del Sur (OVDAS) detected a swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes. These earthquakes continued to increase in magnitude and frequency until 4 June 2011 when the eruption sequence began with a series of Plinian style phases (Schipper et al. 2012). A 5 km wide ash and gas plume rose to 12.2 km height. While lava was not initially observed, pyroclastic flows were noted. Ash and gas plumes continued to be released from the fissure with heights up to 13 km, reducing to a few kilometres by early July. Ash plumes continued to be erupted up to 5 km high until early January 2012, with some incandescent explosions visible at night (OVDAS 2011).
The eruption deposited ash over a 75,000 km2 area to the east (Fig. 3.2). As the CC-VC is located ~18 km from the Chile-Argentina border, most of the area covered by ashfall was in Argentina, including Neuquén, Río Negro and Chubut provinces. Three main population centres received ash deposits. Villa la Angostura, Neuquén, located 54 km ESE from the vent received up to 170 mm of coarse ash; San Carlos de Bariloche located 100 km SE of the vent received 30-45 mm of up to 4 mm sized ash; and