Reflexiones sobre el papel de la educación superior

The main purpose of this study was to investigate factors that impact on resi- dents’ attitudes and perceptions against anti-poaching initiatives in Bloemfontein in the Free State, South Africa. The Rosenberg and Hovland tripartite model on attitudes was used as the theoretical framework for this research. The model included other factors that are important antecedents to rhino poaching, as noted in the literature review. These factors included cognitive, affective and behavioural components of human actions and reactions towards rhinos, resi- dents’ demographics, perceived usefulness of rhinos, and awareness of rhino and their benefits to the nation’s economic, cultural and societal needs. A struc- tured questionnaire was used to collect the data from respondents residing in

The purpose of this section is to summarise the main findings in relation to the objectives of the study, and indicate the conclusions drawn from the findings. This section also outlines the major implications of the findings as per the ob- jectives of the study, hypotheses and research questions, in relation to efforts aimed at encouraging residents to start, or continue engaging in, rhino conser- vation practices in South Africa and beyond, by leaving their ecological footprint that will help save rhinos and other wild animals in South Africa and other parts of the world.

5.2.1 Factors of poaching as obtained from the respondents and the study

The respondents gave an indication of the main factors that they believed in- fluence the increase in rhino poaching:

i) increasing demand for rhino horns; ii) ban in rhino horn trade by CITES; iii) societal or developmental deficiencies;

iv) institutional issues or inefficiency within governmental regulatory agencies; and

v) ineffective legal framework or law enforcement.

The demand from Asian countries, and the ban on rhino horn trade aside, the other three categories are domestic in origin. This potentially suggests that con- servation could be achieved through improved governance by the state and the local communities by shared participation and trust in prevention of rhino poach- ing crimes.

Inadequate law enforcement, poverty, the high rate of unemployment, corrupt- tion, and civil unrest, have all been cited by the respondents as factors con- tributing to increased illegal wildlife consumption. The ban on rhino horn trade is one of the contentious issues cited to be affecting rhino conservation, because poaching by syndicates seems to be yielding more profit for the poachers than for rhino keepers. The cost of keeping rhinos is becoming expensive, due to consistent upgrading of security measures to prevent these sophisticated poachers from killing the animals.

Law enforcement, in terms of anti-poaching effectiveness, was described by Milner-Gulland and Leader-Williams (1992:103) as being influenced by the probability of detection, the likelihood of capture (once detected) and the levels of effectiveness of protection. It was noted during the administering of the ques- tionnaires, that the gangs of organised criminals are the suspects behind poaching incidents of late, with probable employment of local residents as guides. Local poachers have shown positive behavioural changes regarding poaching behaviours when offered an alternative income in place of poaching, and are more easily deterred by the probability of capture, while gangs require penalties that are comparative to the crime committed, and are deterred by im- proved law enforcement devoid of corruption and aiding and abetting (Milner- Gulland & Leader-Williams, 1992:110).

It could be argued that under the current economic conditions surrounding the high price of rhino horn, the benefits associated with poaching greatly exceed the probability of being caught. Suggestions have been made by South African conservationists and research respondents to investigate a legalised rhino horn market, to eliminate or reduce the need for poaching. There are reportedly substantial stockpiles of rhino horn held by the state and private reserves. A legal horn market is therefore an attractive solution to sourcing much conserva- tion funding, instead of the benefits going to the poachers and the black market dealers in rhino horn. Although this solution may not be as simple as it appears, it could go a long way in regulating the rhino horn price which is currently run in the black market.

Bulte and Damania (2005:1223) looked into this very idea, and concludes that a basic supply-side approach could result in either more poaching or a decrease in poaching, under certain market conditions. His reasoning deduced that the supply-side market consumption of ‘perfect competition’ is violated in an illegal black market whereby, in reality, the criminal gangs are acting as traders in an ‘imperfect competition’ environment, supplying a large proportion of the rhino horn stock under almost monopolistic conditions, manipulating the market price by either altering supply or the price. It poses a possibility that if a sustainable horn supply was made available on a controlled basis (thus from unpoached

sources), disreputable or criminal elements active today would be drastically reduced.

According to the recent trends of poaching, the CITES ban on rhino horn trade since 1977 has been proven to be ineffective in decreasing the demand for rhino horn by an ever-increasing human population in the East, and changing consumer habits could prove costly or perhaps impossible (t’Sas-Rolfes, 1994: 67). For this reason, all options should be explored and remain open for con- sideration. Further innovation, political support and funding are required to sustain the rhino populations.

It can further be stated that a lack of, or inefficient, protection policies for rhino and other wildlife have existed for quite some time, resulting in the surge in rhino poaching, and increased smuggling of endangered wildlife products around the world.

The conclusion drawn from the study is that residents perceive the usefulness of wild animals to the country, and have a cognitive knowledge of, and affection for, these animals, but need to be more supportive of the authorities and secur- ity forces assigned to provide protection to rhinos and other wildlife.

5.2.2 Residents’ trust in security agencies and other authorities to combat poaching

The study found that most residents do not feel safe when it comes to the over- all level of trust in the security agencies. Many respondents are of the opinion that most of the officers entrusted with the responsibility of providing rhino pro- tection, are colluding with crime syndicates to poach the rhinos and other wild animals at the national parks and private game reserves where the rhinos are kept. Respondents felt reluctant to report poaching crimes to the security agen- cies or the authorities, for fear of victimisation.

5.2.3 Residents’ demographics and attitude or perceptions towards anti-rhino poaching initiatives

The findings showed that there is a relationship between residents’ demo- graphic variables and attitudes or perceptions towards rhino poaching. The re-

sults showed that older residents have a more positive attitude and perceptions towards anti-rhino poaching initiatives than the younger residents. This is as a result of higher employment levels among the older residents, compared with the younger residents who are still fighting for survival in life, with a higher percentage of unemployment among them. The results did not show any sig- nificant difference in attitudes or perceptions between males and females. Residents with higher education and income were found to have a significantly more positive attitude or perceptions towards rhino poaching and anti-poaching initiatives than those with lower levels of education and income. It is important to note that in cases where significant relationships were found between demo- graphic variables, the levels of correlation were not that great. In conclusion, while differences in attitudes or perceptions may exist between residents in different demographic groups, demographic factors alone are insufficient pre- dictors of attitude and perceptions.

5.3

FACTORS INTERACTING TO AFFECT ATTITUDES OR