B. Determinación del espesor efectivo de losa del pavimento existente (D ef )
4.4 REFUERZOS RÍGIDOS
4.4.2 REFUERZO ADHERIDO AL PAVIMENTO EXISTENTE
These are herbs, rarely woody, as bamboos. They are very widely distributed all over the earth.
Stem: This is cylindrical and has distinct nodes and
internodes (sometimes hollow), called culm. Leaves
: These are simple, alternate and distichous. They
have a sheathing leaf base that is split open on the side
opposite the leaf blade. There is a hairy structure, called the ligule, at the base of the leaf blade.
Inflorescence: This is usually a spike or a panicle of
spikelets. Each spikelet consists of one or few flowers (not exceeding five), and its base-bears two empty bracts or glumes (GI, GII), one placed a little above and opposite the other. A third glume, called the lemma or flowering glume, stands opposite the second glume. The lemma encloses a flower in its axil. It may have a bristle-like appendage, long or short, known as the awn. Opposite the flowering glume or lemma, there is a somewhat smaller, two-nerved glume called the palea. The spikelet may be sessile or stalked.
Flowers: These are usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual
and monoecious.
Perianth: This is represented by 2- or 3-minute scales,
called the lodicules, at the base of the flower. These are considered to form the rudimentary perianth.
Androecium
: There are three stamens, or sometimes
six, as in rice and bamboo. The anthers are versatile and pendulous.
Gynoecium: The carpels are generally considered to
number (three), reduced to one by their fusion or by the suppression of two. The ovary is superior and one- celled, with one ovule. The styles usually number two (three in bamboos, and two fused into one in maize, rarely one). They may be terminal or lateral. The stigmas are feathery.
Fruit:
The fruit is a caryopsis.
Seed:
This is albuminous. Pollination by the wind is
most common. Self-pollination occurs in a few cases, as in wheat.
Floral Formula: HP Lodicules2 or 3 A3 or 6 G(3) or 1
GII
GI
Fig. 5.5 Floral diagram of gramineae Examples: Rice, maize, bamboo, etc.
5.7. LABIATAE
Habit: These are herbs and undershrubs with square
stems.
Leaves: These are simple, opposite or whorled, exstipu-
late and have oil glands.
Flowers: This is a zygomorphic, bilabiate, hypogynous
and bisexual.
Inflorescence: This is a verticillaster. It is often reduced
to a true cyme, as in tulsi.
Calyx: The petals are (five in number), gamopetalous and
bilabiate, i.e. two lipped. The aestivation is imbricate. Androecium: The stamens are four and didynamous.
Sometimes there are only two, as in sage. They are epipetalous.
Gynoecium:
The carpels are (2) and syncarpous. The
disc is prominent. The ovary is four-lobed and four- celled, with one ovule in each cell, ascending from the base of ovary. The style is gynobasic, i.e. it develops from the depressed centre of the lobed ovary. The stigma is bifid.
Fruit: This is a group of four nutlets, each with one seed.
The seed has only scanty endosperm, or even none.
Floral formula: ·׀·H K(5) C(5) A4 G(2)
Fig. 5.6 Floral diagram of labiatae Examples: Tulsi, mentha, etc.
5.8. LEGUMINOSAE
Habit: These are herbs, shrubs, trees, twiners or climb-
ers.
Roots: The roots of many species, particularly of
Pap-
ilionaceae, have tubercles.
Leaves: These are alternate, pirnnately compound, and
rarely simple, as in rattlewort (Crotalaria sericea), camel’s foot tree (bauhinid) and some species of desmodium, e.g. D. gangeticum, with a swollen leaf-base known as the pulvinus. There are two, usually free, stipules.
Flowers: These are bisexual and complete, regular or
zygomorphic or irregular, and hypogynous or slightly perigynous.
Calyx: There are usually 5 or (5) sepals, with the odd
one anterior (away from the axis). Sometimes there are four sepals. They may be united or free.
Corolla: There are usually five petals, with the odd one
posterior (towards the axis). Sometimes there are four petals, free or united.
Androecium: There are usually 10 or more stamens
(often less than 10 by reduction) free or united. Gynoecium: There is one carpel. The ovary is one-celled,
with one to many ovules. It is superior and the placen- tation is marginal. The ovary often borne on a long or short stalk is called the stipe or gynophore.
Fruit: This is mostly a legume or pod (dehiscent), or
sometimes a lomentum (indehiscent).
This is the second biggest family among the dicotyledons, and has varying characteristics. As such, it has been divided into the following sub-families: papilionaceae, caesalpin- ieae and mimoseae. The division is primarily based on the characteristics of the corolla and the stamens.
Papilionaceae
Habit: Herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers.
Leaves: Unipinnate, sometimes trifoliate, rarely simple;
stipels often present.
Inflorescence: Usually a raceme.
Flowers: Zygomorphic, polypetalous and papiliona-
ceous.
Calyx: Usually has five sepals, gamosepalous, often
imbricate, sometimes valvate.
Corolla: Usually has five petals, free, of very unequal
sizes, the posterior and largest one being the vexillum or standard, the two lateral ones being the wings or alae, and the two innermost ones (apparently united) forming the keel or carina; aestivation vexillary.
Androecium: Stamens 10, diadelphous (9) + 1, rarely
10, free, as in coral tree (erythrina), or (10), connate, as in rattlewort (crotalaria).
Floral formula: ·׀·H K(5) C5 A(9) + 1 G1
Fig. 5.7 Floral diagram of papilionaceae Examples: Methi, indigo, bengal gram, etc.
Caesalpinieae
Habit:
Shrubs trees, rarely climbers or herbs.
Leaves: Unipinnate or bipinnate, rarely simple, as in
camel’s foot tree (Bauhinia); stipels absent. Inflorescence: Mostly a raceme.
Flowers: Zygomorphic or irregular and polypetalous.
Calyx: Sepals usually have five, polysepalous (sometimes
gamosepalous), imbricate.
Corolla: Usually have five petals, free, subequal or
unequal, the odd or posterior one (sometimes very small) always innermost; aestivation imbricate.
Androecium: There are 10 stamens, or less by reduc-
tion; free.
Floral formula: ·׀·H K5 C5 A10 G1
Fig. 5.8 Floral diagram of Caesalpinieae Examples: Indian Senna, Saraca indica, etc.
Mimoseae
Habit: Shrubs and trees, sometimes herbs or woody
climbers.
Leaves: Bipinnate; stipels present or absent.
Inflorescence: A head or a spike.
Flowers: Regular, often small and aggregated in spheri-
cal heads.
Calyx: (5) or (4) sepals, generally gamosepalous,
valvate.
Corolla: (5) or 4) petals, mostly gamopetalous; aestiva-
tion valvate.
Androecium: Usually ∞ stamens, sometimes 10 (as in
Entada, Neptunia, Prosopis and Parkia), free, often united at the base; pollen often united in small masses.
Floral formula: ⊕ H K(5 – 4) C(5 – 4) A ∞ or 10 G1
Examples: Catechu and other species of acacia, Mimosa
pudica, etc.
Fig. 5.9 Floral diagram of mimoseae
5.9. LILIACEAE
H
abit: These are herbs and climbers, and rarely shrubs or trees with a bulb or rhizome, or with fibrous roots. Leaves: These are simple, radical or cauline, or both.
Flowers: The flowers are regular, bisexual (rarely uni-
sexual) dioecious, as in smilex. They are trimerous and hypogynous. The bracts are usually small and scarious (thin, dry and membranous).
Inflorescence:
This may be a spike, raceme, panicle or
umbel, often on a scape.
Perianth: The perianths are petaloid. There are usually
six in two whorls. They may be 3+3 and free (polyphyl- lous), or (3+3), and united (gamophyllous).
Androecium: There are six stamens in two whorls, 3+3,
rarely free or united with the perianth (epiphyllous) at the base. The anthers are often dorsifixed.
Gynoecium
: There are (3) carpels (syncarpous). The
ovary is superior and three celled. There are usually ∞ ovules in two rows in each loculus. The placentation is axile. There are (3) or 3 styles.
Fruit:
This may be a berry or capsule.
Seeds: The seeds are album
inous.
Floral formula: ⊕ H P3 + 3 or (3 + 3) A3 + 3 G(3)
Fig. 5.10 Floral diagram of liliaceae Examples: Onion, garlic, aloe, colchicum, etc.
5.10. PAPAVERACEAE
Habit:
They are mostly herbs with milky or yellowish
latex.
Leaves: The leaves are radical and cauline, simple and
alternate, often lobed.
Flowers: These are solitary, often showy, regular, bisexual
and hypogynous.
Calyx: The sepals are typically two or sometimes three,
free, caducous.
Corolla: There are petals 2+2 or 3+3, arranged rarely
more, in two whorls (rarely three), large, free, rolled or crumpled in the bud, caducous and imbricate.
Androecium: Stamens
α, sometimes two or four. They
are free.
Gynoecium: The carpels (2- ∞), (4–6) in argemone
. It
is syncarpous. The ovary is superior, 1-chambered, or spuriously 2- to 4-chambered, with 2-∞ parietal placen- tae which may project inwards, as in poppy (papaver). The stigmas are distinct or sessile and rayed over the ovary, as in poppy. The ovules are numerous.
Fruit: This is a septicidal capsule dehiscing by or opening
by pores. There are many seeds, with oily endosperm.
Floral formula: ⊕ H K 2 or 3 C 2+2 or 3+3 A ∞ G (2-∞)
Fig. 5.11 Floral diagram of Papaveraceae (Argemone) Examples: Argemone mexicana, Opium poppy (Papavera
somniferum), etc.
5.11. RUBIACEAE
Habit: These are herbs (erect or prostrate), shrubs, trees
and climbers, sometimes thorny.
Leaves: The leaves are simple, entire, opposite (decus-
sate) or whorled, with interpetiolar (sometimes intra- petiolar) stipules.
Flowers: The flowers are regular, bisexual, epigynous,
sometimes dimorphic, as in some species of randia and oldenlandia.
Inflorescence: The inflorescence is typically cymose,
frequently dichasial and branched, sometimes in globose heads.
Calyx: There are usually four sepals, sometimes five. It
is gamosepalous. The calyx tube adnates to the ovary. Corolla: There are usually four sometimes five. It is
gamopetalous, generally rotate. The aestivation is valvate, imbricate or twisted.
Androecium: The stamens are as epipetalous, inserted
within or at the mouth of the corolla tube, alternating with the corolla lobes.
Gynoecium:
The carpels are two, syncarpous. The ovary
is inferior, commonly two-locular, with 1-∞ ovules in each. The disc is usually annular, at the base of the style.
Fruit:
The fruit is a berry, drupe or capsule.
Seeds: The seed has fleshy or horny endosperm.
Floral formula: ⊕ H K (4 – 5) C(4 – 5) A4 - 5 G2
Fig. 5.12 Floral diagram of Rubiaceae Examples: Cinchona, Ipecac, etc.
5.12. RUTACEAE
Habit: These are shrubs and trees (rarely herbs).
Leaves: The leaves are simple or compound, alternate
or rarely opposite and gland dotted.
Flowers: These are regular, bisexual and hypogynous.
The disc below the ovary is prominent and ring or cap like.
Calyx: There are four or five sepals free or connate
below and imbricate. Corolla: Petals four or five
, free, imbricate.
Androecium: The number of stamens varies, they can
be as many, or more often twice, as many, as the petals (obdiplostemonous), or numerous, as in citrus and aegle. They are free or united in irregular bundles (polyadel- phous), and inserted on the disc.
Gynoecium:
There are generally (4) or (5) carpels, or ∞,
as in citrus. They are syncarpous or free at the base and united above, and either sessile or seated on the disc. The ovary is generally four- or five-locular, or multilocular as in citrus, with axile placentation (parietal in limonia only). There are usually 2-∞ (rarely 1) ovules in each loculus, arranged in two rows.
Fruit:
Seeds: The seeds may or may not have an endosperm.
Polyembryony is frequent in Citrus, e.g. lemon and orange (but not pummelo and citron).
Floral formula: ⊕ H K 4–5 C 4–5 A 8, 10 or ∞ G (4, 5 or ∞)
Fig. 5.13 Floral diagram of Rutaceae
Examples: Citrus limon, Citrus aurentium, Aegle marmelos
(wood apple).
5.13. SCROPHULARIACEAE
Habit: Th
ese are mostly herbs and under-shrubs. Leaves: These are simple, alternate, opposite or whorled,
exstipulate, and sometimes exhibit heterophylly. Inflorescence: This is usually racemose (raceme or spike),
and sometimes cymose (dichasium). It can be axillary or terminal. The flowers are solitary in some species. Flowers: These are zygomorphic, two-lipped and some-
times personate. They often have a great diversity of form. They are bisexual and hypogynous. Bracts and bracteoles are generally present.
Calyx: The sepals are (5), gamosepalous, five-lobed and
often imbricate.
Corolla: The petals are (5), gamopetalous, often two-
lipped and sometimes spurred or saccate. They are medianly zygomorphic, very rarely regular (as in Sco- paria), and imbricate.
Androecium: The stamens are four, didynamous, some-
times two, arching over in pairs. The posterior stamen is absent or a staminode. The anthers are divaricate. Gynoecium: The carpels are (2) and syncarpous. The
ovary is superior, bilocular and antero-posterior (and not oblique as in solanaceae). The placentation is axile. The stigma is simple or bilobed. There are usually many ovules, though sometimes only a few. The disc is ring-like around the base of the ovary, sometimes unilateral.
Fruit: This is mostly a capsule and sometimes a berry.
Seeds: T
hese are usually numerous, minute and endospermic.
Floral formula: ·׀· H K(5) C(5) A4 or 2 G(2)
Fig. 5.14 Floral diagram of scrophulariaceae
Examples: Digitalis purpurea, brahmi (Baccopa monnieria), etc.
5.14. SOLANACEAE
Habit: These are herbs and shrubs; bicollateral bundles
or internal phloem are often present.
Leaves: These are simple, sometimes pinnate, as in
tomato, and alternate.
Flowers: These are regular, seldom zygomorphic, as in
Brunfelsia, bisexual and hypogynous.
Calyx: The sepals are (5), united and persistent.
Corolla: The petals are (5) and united. It is usually
funnel or cup shaped, five lobed. The lobes are valvate or twisted in the bud.
Androecium: The stamens are five, epipetalous and alter-
nate with the corolla lobes. The anthers are apparently connate and often open by means of pores.
Gynoecium:
The carpels are (2) and syncarpous. The
ovary is superior and obliquely placed. It is two celled or sometimes four celled, owing to the development of a false septum, as in tomato and thorn apple. There are many ovules in each chamber. The placentation is axile. Fruit:
The fruit is a berry or capsule with many seeds.
Floral formula: ⊕ H K(5) C(5) A5 G–(2)
Fig. 5.15 Floral diagram of solanaceae
Examples: Atropa belladona, tomato, capsicum, datura,
5.15. UMBELLIFERAE
Habit: These are herbs (rarely shrubs). The stem is
usually fistular.
Leaves: The leaves are alternate, simple, often much
divided, sometimes decompound; petiole usually sheath- ing at the base.
Flowers: The flowers are regular (actinomorphic) or
sometimes zygomorphic, epigynous, bisexual or polyga- mous. The outer flowers are sometimes rayed; mostly protandrous. The bracts are in the form of an involu- cre.
Inflorescence: It is an umbel, usually compound or in
a few cases simple as in centella.
Calyx: There are five sepals. They are free, adnate to
the ovary, often considerably reduced in size.
Corolla: The petals are five, rarely absent, free, adnate to
the ovary and sometimes unequal. The margin is often curved inwards, valvate or imbricate.
Androecium: There are five stamens, which are free,
alternating with the petals, epigynous. The filaments are bent inwards in the bud; anthers introrse.
Gynoecium: The carpels are two, syncarpous. The ovary
is inferior, two-celled, antero-posterior, crowned by a two-lobed, epigynous disc (stylopodium), with two free styles arising from it. The stigmas capitate. There are two ovules, solitary in each cell and pendulous.
Fruit:
The fruit is a cremocarp consisting of two inde-
hiscent carpels laterally or dorsally compressed, breaking up into two parts, called mericarps, which are attached to a slender, often forked axis (carpophore). Each mericarp usually shows five longitudinal ridges and oil canals (vittae) in the furrows.
Seeds: There are two seeds, one in each mericarp;
albuminous.
Floral formula: ⊕ or ·׀· H K5 C5 A10 G(2)
Fig. 5.16 Floral diagram of umbelliferae Examples: Fennel, coriender, caraway, dill, etc.