LA RELACIÓN ENTRE EL NIVEL SOCIOECONÓMICO Y LA LECTURA.

Theories supporting this study relate to the pedagogical principles of active learning. Such principles encourage learners to actively participate in their learning and promote a more inclusive approach through which all students are engaged in learning activities (Petty, 2014). Consequently, the activities introduced into the classroom can determine the engagement and participation of learners. Likewise, the selection of such activities is significant to learner achievements. Petty (2014) suggests that passive methods (such as listening) do not improve learning and understanding for weaker students. Both weak and strong students benefit greatly from a learning experience which includes active methods. According to Benson’s (1997) theory, there are three different kinds of learner autonomy, which he refers to as technical autonomy, psychological autonomy and political autonomy. Active learning falls within the psychological version of autonomy, which relates to the

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behaviour of learners, their attitudes and motivations as well as their concept of self (Benson & Voller, 1997).

Oxford (2003) later added the sociocultural perspective to be the fourth version of autonomy, highlighting the importance of context, agency and motivation in relation to autonomy. Dam (1995) also emphasised the social aspect of autonomy and the value of learning in cooperation with others. Nevertheless, it is clear that all three versions of autonomy can overlap but there is a defined goal at the end, which the learner is setting out to achieve. Whether this is by being an active learner and participating in activities, by having the motivation and ability to succeed, or by making decisions about the content of learning, or indeed by using elements of all three, it is the learning objective that is most important.

To a great extent active learning requires a learner to take on the responsibility for their own learning and engage with the activities that will enable participation. There is an affective element introduced that makes the learner want to be involved. However, they must also have the technical ability to be able to learn by themselves (Lamb, 2017) and this means they will find ways to ensure they can achieve their objectives. The motivation for doing so is enhanced by a humanist approach, whereby individuals have a desire to develop themselves through shaping their own learning experiences (Atkinson, 1993; Stevick, 1980).

The study refers to a humanist approach whereby individuals have a desire to develop themselves through shaping their own learning experiences (Atkinson, 1993; Stevick, 1980). This approach emphasises the importance of active learning, autonomy and free will. It also asserts that students must have a motivation for learning that will lead to them achieving their goals. The humanist approach suggests that there must be intrinsic motivation, which is linked to the development of autonomous learners (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994). Namely, learners who want to achieve certain objectives will find ways to reach these goals and, thus, will not wait until the learning comes to them. Intrinsically motivated learners will actively seek opportunities to develop their knowledge and skills. From a research perspective that seeks to explore the desires and motivations of learners that may result in autonomy, this study has taken a qualitative approach to gaining a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of autonomy in language learning.

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Learner autonomy also owes much to constructivism, as learners focus on ways in which they can manage their own learning (Reinders, 2010). The general theory of constructivism suggests that the ways in which learners construct knowledge comes from giving meaning to their experiences. Tippins et al. (1993) explain that constructivist learning is “an active process in which learners construct knowledge in a way that makes personal sense. And it is a subjective process, as learners draw on their own background experiences to make sense” (p.223). This phenomenon indicates that knowledge must already be in place for constructivism to take place and that there is a need for the learning to be in context. New learning is interpreted in the light of past experiences. Therefore, any learning that occurs is influenced by the individual’s perceptions (von Glaserfeld, 1987). This view runs counter to positivism where knowledge is seen as fixed rather than constructed, and this knowledge is transmitted from an expert (the teacher) to passive learners. In this way, teachers become suppliers of knowledge and learners are expected to be “containers”, to be filled with the knowledge provided by their teachers; this positivist view is incompatible with constructivist learning and learner autonomy (Benson & Voller, 1997). Knowledge is not a transferable commodity, it is not a matter of memorisation and replication; knowledge is to be learned, constructed, and ‘built up’ by the learner (Candy, 1991).

Constructivism relates to autonomy as students should actively be encouraged to take the initiative in their own learning, but the new knowledge that they attain will be linked to what is already familiar to them. The constructivist approach involves a more active role for the learner to get them involved in constructing knowledge within a sociocultural context (Lamb, 2017). This is by encouraging learning new concepts through social interactions and collaborative learning, as well as learner initiative and learner reflection, which characterise ‘social constructivism’ and is closely linked to the concept of learner autonomy (Cirocki, 2016). The role of the teacher in this process is also fundamental in directing students towards active learning to help them become more engaged in knowledge construction and the construction of personal meaning within the social context in which learning takes place. It is important to acknowledge that the teacher has a role in producing the right kinds of materials for learners to be directed to the best learning methods. As learners all have individual ways of constructing knowledge, a variety of different approaches may be useful in presenting knowledge and encouraging active participation in learning. It is debatable whether a learner would be able to identify the optimal source of

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learning materials or find the right sources for constructing knowledge without a teacher’s intervention. This study is, therefore, underpinned by the theory that learner autonomy requires the preparation and guidance of a teacher.

The role of a teacher in encouraging autonomy is an area of dissent. Nonetheless, this area of research contributes to the theoretical framework in this study. A considerable amount of work has been written about individuals and their role in the learning process. These works have tended to focus on different learning preferences, and this variety has led to teachers introducing more than one approach into their teaching. Such studies have been underpinned by theories such as visual, auditory, reading, and kinaesthetic teaching approaches to suit individual learning styles (Fleming & Bauma, 2006). Honey and Mumford (1992) designed a learning styles questionnaire to determine preferred learning styles. Preferences were measured by the behaviour of learners, which included active, reflective, theoretic, and pragmatic tendencies. Critics, however, have concluded that the behaviours covered in the questionnaire do not accurately take into account the preferences of students in education contexts, as students are more disposed towards management (Duff & Duffy, 2002). The more accurate predictor of student performance, according to many studies (Lynch et al., 1998), has been Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory (Kolb, 1985). However, even Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory has had critics question its reliability and validity (Geiger, Boyle, & Pinto, 1992). This criticism indicates that learning styles may not have as much of an influence over the engagement of learners as some believe.