All researchers agree on the importance of developing reading skills and strategies. To become effective readers, students have to develop their reading comprehension skills (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). However, it is noteworthy that different language specialists list rather different types of reading skills. Harmer (2002) lists a number of skills of reading such as predicting, guessing word meaning, reading for specific information, scanning, skimming, reading for general comprehension, inferring from texts, interpreting texts, surveying text organisation, and critically evaluating texts. In addition to this list of reading skills, Madhumathi and Ghosh (2012) mention other reading skills like using mental images, envisaging, asking questions and monitoring comprehension. Alderson (2000) highlights the importance of using different reading skills for different text types; for
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example, to recognise and use memorised elements when texts are enumerative and to skim and scan while reading orientated texts like newspapers and messages. The skills of decoding and classifying are implemented with instructive texts whereas inferring, guessing and interpreting are used for evaluating literary texts. Below are the main reading skills that are noted by different linguists:
Skimming
Skimming is defined by Nuttall (2005:49) as “glancing rapidly through a text
to determine its gist”. Skimming helps people save time when they are after
specific information. Skimming as a more thorough activity requires an overall view of the text and implies a confident reading competence (Grellet, 2010). McDonough and Shaw (2003) indicate that skimming helps skilled readers to extract general information from a text and scanning helps them to locate specific information in it. Skimming seems to be an important skill for reading comprehension because it facilitates getting a general understanding of the text quickly (Grabe and Stoller, 2002).
Scanning
Scanning is a means of selecting specific information in a text (Patesan et al., 2014). It involves looking for specific words/phrases, figures, names or dates of a particular event. According to Nuttall (2005:49), scanning is “glancing
rapidly through a text either to search for a specific piece of information (e.g. a name, a date) … or to get an initial impression of whether the text is suitable for a given purpose”. When a reader is good at scanning, it will be
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effort. Scanning appears to be more teachable and easier to apply than some other reading skills and it can help students to pass their exams but it does not guarantee full understanding of a text.
Browsing
Browsing is a “sort of reading where goals are not well defined, parts of a text
may be skipped fairly randomly, and there is a little attempt to integrate the information into a macrostructure” (Urquhart and Weir, 1998:103). Students
might use browsing when they are asked to select topics or texts. It can be more effective when the purpose of reading is definite. It is also helpful in extensive reading.
Prediction
According to Ahmadi and Ismail (2012:157), predicting includes “joining the
reader’s background knowledge, new information from the passage, and the passage’s construction to make assumptions” that are related to the writer’s
message. As Nuttall (2005) suggests, the importance of prediction lies in activating schemata and thinking along with the writer using one’s own experience to resolve difficulties. Prediction occurs when the reader brings his/her own knowledge and experience to the text, which makes it easy and smooth for them to make out the meaning of the text. Johnson (2001) points out that prediction is part of the top-down process. The previous knowledge or experience of a reader helps them to predict what the writer is going to say next. Grellet (2010) indicates that making use of grammatical, lexical and cultural clues helps readers predict what is to come next.
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through each and every line in the text. Prediction begins with the title of a text and continues throughout the whole process of reading. Sometimes prediction may be wrong, yet it makes the reader think about the topic as prediction is useful even when it is not successful (Nuttall, 2005). Efficient readers always depend on their ability to predict what comes next. They use minimum clues from the text in order to reach the appropriate meaning of the text. Grellet (2010) and Cuperman (2014) suggest that teachers should make their students think about the topic, use key words of the text and ask themselves questions about the various ways the text may develop. When it is applicable, using pictures is one way to help students predict what is coming next (Harmer, 2002). On the other hand, Johnson (2001) suggests that using cloze exercises, in which learners are given a text with some words missing, can help learners develop predictive skills. Prediction is one of the skills that can be rather easily enhanced by teachers and developed by learners, even those in the primary school. It is important for teachers to stop starting a reading class by writing or telling their students the title of the reading text instead of showing them some pictures or giving them some clues to encourage their imagination and let them start predicting.
Inferencing
Inferencing is “to make assumptions and logical deductions from concrete ideas” (Cuperman, 2014:50). When a text does not state something directly, it is the reader’s responsibility to infer this information. Thus, inferencing is linked to the process of reconstructing the writer’s unstated ideas. Readers can make use of syntactic, logical and cultural clues to discover the meaning of these unknown elements (Grellet, 2010). Accordingly, the purpose of
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inferencing is to help readers to fill in the gaps in information and go beyond the literal meaning of words in a text to create a fully comprehensive image (Hogan et al., 2011). In addition, Nuttall (2005) indicates that readers can use their inferencing skills to draw a certain conclusion from facts or points in an argument, etc. that a text mentions, but as Snowling and Hulme (2005) point out, it is difficult for less skilled comprehenders to make inferences while reading. Teachers can enhance the inferencing skill of students in a reading class by using key or clue words and by raising inferential questions. The importance of inferencing was highlighted by Davis in the 1940s. Hudson (2007) cites Davis‘s four factors or skills that can help learners in reading comprehension which are: knowledge of word meaning, drawing inferences from the content, finding answers to questions answered explicitly or in paraphrase in the passage and weaving together ideas in the content, and drawing inferences about the meaning of a word from context.
It should be noted that inferencing is not necessarily of certainty. It is about probabilities. But these possibilities may gradually turn into certainties when the reader meets a word more frequently and understands it more explicitly. According to Nuttall (2005), inferencing affects the interpretation of a text to a large extent, helps the students to read texts more quickly and makes reading more enjoyable because of its problem-solving character which appeals to most people and which challenges students to make use of their intelligence. In order to infer a piece of information of a given text effectively, students should make use of common sense, power of reasoning, knowledge of the world and other cultures. However, because the English and Arab cultures are totally different, it might be difficult for Libyan students to gain
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such a skill and apply it effectively, especially as Libya is not a culturally diverse country.
Previewing
Grabe and Stoller (2002:263) define previewing as “a pre-reading activity that
introduces students to key features of a text”, which helps students to
establish their expectations about what and how information is organised. Previewing is a quick technique for the reader who wants to find out where the required information is likely to be (Grellet, 2010). It involves using the title of a text, the table of contents, the index, the appendix, the preface of the author or publisher, headings or subtitles of chapters and paragraphs, information in the back cover, abstracts of journal articles, acknowledgement etc.
This useful skill saves students time in leading them towards intended and specific information that they look for. For example, instead of spending a long time reading a whole book for locating specific information, the students can check the table of contents or the text on the back cover to decide whether they need that book or not.
Recognising Text Organisation
To recognise text organisation means to be able to identify the internal structure of sentences and textual pattern, which may enable the reader to predict the likely values of sentences; and this in turn will help them to interpret difficult texts. According to Lo et al. (2013:413), text structure “refers
to the way the writers organise information in text”. Zarrati et al. (2014) identify two kinds of information in texts: content information and structural
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information. While readers use content information to construct a meaningful mental representation of a text, they use structural information to organise the content and thus facilitate the process of making meaning of a text. Thus, knowledge of text structure is important for comprehension (Hudson, 2007; Cain, 2010). The identification of how the text is organised and how the ideas hang together makes it easier to interpret difficult sentences (Nuttall, 2005). A reading text will probably be like a puzzle to the readers who are unable to recognise how it is organised and how the ideas in a text are structured.
Mobalegh and Saljooghian (2012) suggest that cohesion is one of the aspects that show how well-organised a passage is. They identify five kinds of cohesive ties: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. Reference means interpreting something in a text by referring to something else; substitution is replacing an item by another; ellipsis is omitting an item which is not key in a text; conjunctions are devices that express certain meanings; and lexical cohesion is related to selecting vocabulary. The consistency of thinking and knowledge of text structure and organisation are helpful in facilitating reading comprehension.
Shared Assumptions
For any communication to take place, it is essential for the reader and the writer to have certain things in common (Nuttall, 2005). Sharing the code is the minimum requirement as it is not logical to read a text in a language that one does not know. Vocabulary is also an important area to be shared between the writer and the reader. Shared assumptions include some other intangible things like attitudes, beliefs, values, culture and customs, which
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may contribute significantly to a better understanding of a text if they are common or identical.
It is obvious that the shared assumptions between the writer and the reader affect the development of the reading skills; that is, the more assumptions the writer and the reader share, the more effective the reading is. With the major differences between the English culture and Libyan culture, they are not expected to have many shared assumptions. This skill is relevant to the schema process and the background knowledge of the reader.