REPÚBLICA BOLIVARIANA DE VENEZUELA: POBLACIÓN CENSADA Y TASA MEDIA ANUAL DE CRECIMIENTO, SEGÚN CIUDADES BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA: POPULATION ENUMERATED AND ANNUAL AVERAGE GROWTH RATES, BY CITIES

Types of Motivation

1. Positive or Incentive Motivation: According to Flippo, ‘Positive motivation is a process of attempting to influence other to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward”.

According to Peter Drucker, “the real and positive motivators are responsible for placement, high standard of performance, information adequate for self control and the participation of the workers as a responsible citizen in the plant community.

2. Negative for Fear Motivation

3. Extrinsic Motivation like promotion, status, fringe benefits, retirements plans, health insurance schemes, holidays and vacation.

4. Intrinsic Motivation are praise, responsibility, reortanisazation, esteem, power, status, competition and participation are examples of such motivation.

Steps in Motivation

Jucius has observed and adopted the following steps in motivation: 1. Sizing up situation, requiring tools

2. Preparing a set of motivating tools

3. Selecting and applying an appropriate motivation 4. Following up the results of the application Management Technique Design to Increase Motivation

Management generally use financial and non financial motivation techniques to motivate their employees. 1. Financial Motivaiton

2. Non – Financial Motivation like - Appraisal, praise and prestige - Status and price

- Compensation - Delegation of Authority - Participation - Job Security - Job Rotation - Job Enlargement

- Job Loading - Job Enrichment - Reinforcement - Quality of work life

Guidelines for Motivating Employees and the Managers:

Some of the suggestions for the guidance of motivating the people are listed below:  Management should treat the people with respect and honesty

 To achieve to goal sub-ordinate should equipped with the proper instruction and guidelines  They should maintain the concrete feed back system

 Management should avoid the dissatisfies into the job

 Management should set fair, achievable goals and communicate to the employees  The people should know the feed back system

 All such techniques like MBO, Job enrichment and morale maintenance, job analysis, must be implemented. The Position in India

In the Indian context, it may be said that physiological needs are still dominant in many industries as in developed countries. As for safety needs these take the firm of job security, security against hazards of life and security have been designed to satisfy some of these needs. As for the higher social needs, they are not easy to satisfy. However, close relationships are built with at least some fellow workers. Ego needs are satisfied to a very limited extent; whereas self-realization or self-actualization takes place very seldom.

The Changing Nature or Human Needs

As Maslow pointed out, “Each need is not completely exclusive of other needs, but the individual’s concentrations of interests in seen as variable and changing.” As satisfaction in one area is obtained, interest moves to another focus. The effect of the progressive need fulfillment is to suggest that while all individuals are need-oriented and their needs have some common basis, not every individual feels the same needs at a given point of time.

Study undertaken by the USA Deptt. Of Labour has brought out certain interesting observations, e.g., “Interesting work” was placed on the top. “Enough information to get the job done was second in importance. In composite figures, more than 50% of the employees were “while collar personnel. Fein has provided an analysis of the data, regarding differences in job expectations of the composite worker, and blue-collar workers than for white-collar employees. On the other hand,” interesting work” and “enough authority” appeared particularly to be of lesser importance to most blue-collar workers than was true of the composite workers.

Hofstede, in an international study of employees in seven occupational levels in 16 countries, has concluded as follows:

 The professions exhibited urgent needs for self-actualization and esteem (achievement and reputation).  Managers had self-actualization esteem and social needs.

 Technicians had a mixture of self-actualization, esteem, social security and physiological needs.  Clerical workers were most concerned about social needs; and

 Unskilled workers sought for security and physiological needs.

Hofstede further said that, “It would be a mistake to conclude that ever employee’s needs and expectations are identical to those of other employees. differences appear by occupation, and it should be expected that differences occur within individuals.” On the basis of this study, a hierarchy seems to appear based upon the organizational level of the employee Perhaps certain needs are met as the individual rises up on the hierarchy, and other needs become more urgent.

Fig. Unsatisfied Needs Lead to Defensive Behaviour

Non-attainment of the goal, which would satisfy certain needs, is productive of many serious problems.

When an individual satisfies his needs in a manner which is acceptable to society and which satisfies his “ego”, he is known as an adaptive or an adjusted person. He is said to posses a mature behaviour and personality. He is goal- oriented and generally adopts and flexible, resourceful and problem-solving attitude for he satisfactions of his need. For this purpose, he tries different ways to relieve his tension. He may either intensify his efforts, or he may recognize his perception of the problem, or may adopt substituted goals. This type of behaviour is known as “Constructive behaviour”

On the other hand, when one is incapable of satisfying, or fails to satisfy his particular needs, or satisfied them in a manner that is unacceptable to society, he is known as a maladjusted, ma/-adapted person or a social inadequate. Since his needs are not satisfied, he becomes disorganized, and adopts unproductive measures to show his frustration. This type of behaviour is called “defensive behaviour” He may, for example, want to get rich quickly by gambling or robbery, or he may satisfy his sex desire in illicit relations, and that of drinking by indulging in illicit distillation. It should that when a goal-directed behaviour is successful, it leads to a release of tensions and the satisfactions of needs when this is not so, a frustrated behaviour develops in the form of discouragement, discontentment, excessive complaining, bargging, lying, jealousy, frequent changes of jobs, excessive withdrawal from work, day-dreaming, wasteful and destructive behaviour, irritation, annoyance, vexation, etc.

Frustration refers to the blocking or thwarting of goal attainment. According to Maslow, “it is a threatening deprivation,” which generally occurs when the drive for need satisfaction is thwarted. Men’s tolerance of frustration varies considerably. Some are very easily affected by frustration, other are less so. Consequently, under the same circumstances, one person may adopt a behaviour which is quite different from that of another. For example, when three individuals expect to get a pay raise on a particular day, an d if they do not get it because the weak financial position of the company. A may think of leaving the job and take up employment elsewhere; B may grumble, and show hostility towards the management; while C may be patient and continue to work in the hope that he will receive his raise when conditions are normal.

Perception of ways of satisfying Need (Tension) achievement Search for satisfying goals Attempts to attain goals Frustration Goal Perception of Alternative goal Attempts to attain goals Goal achievements Defensive behaviour Perception of ways of satisfying Need (Tension) achievement Search for satisfying goals Attempts to attain goals Frustration Goal

When people adopt non-rational ways of behaviour to face frustration, they are said to use their defence mechanism. This term has been used by psychologists because it serves to protect an individual’s feeling self-worth in the face of continue frustration. French has defined the defence mechanism as “a non-rational attempt to avoid the loss of some satisfier. Non-rational defensive behaviour is that of which the individual is either not aware or over which he has little or no control, in contrast to consciously decided upon courses of action chosen from alternatives.” In other words, ways of thinking and behaving in circumstances of frustration, which are not effective problem – solving approaches, are self-deceptive and serve to protect an individual’s self concept. These are referred to as defence mechanism.

Lawshe and others have classified defence mechanism into four types: (1) Aggression;

(2) Regression; (3) Fixation; and (4) Resignation

Aggression is one way in which frustration can be shown. It is reaction in response to frustration involving some kind of attack direct out ward. It occurs when a person attempts to achieve something that he is not capable of achieving it is a positive step, it is neither flight from the scene of work nor a kind of internal withdrawal which, leads to apathy or anomie. It may normally be external. i.e. either towards the sources which caused frustration (as for example a bullying supervisor or an unsympathetic management) and this may not only take the form of individual action but also of concerted action by a group or organisation of workers. It may take the shape of demonstrations, strikes, even physical to inflict and injury on, or cause damage to, the barrier to goal attainment or something closely associated with it. This behaviour does not represent and effective problem-solving strategy.

For example:

(a) When a child is frustrated in a game, he may break toys, beat his companion, or abuse him and run away. (b) An unsatisfied worker may misuse or even damage a machine and become un-co-operative and antagonistic

to his fellow-workers; or he may hit the boss; or he may undermine his own reputation by indulging in gossip and other malicious behaviour.

(c) A foreman, who “gets mad” at an inspector for rejecting parts manufactured in his department, exhibits a direct aggressive responsive.

(d) When reprimanded by his boss, an employee goes home, and quarrels with his wife who, in turn, punishes the child.

(e) In labour-management relations, a worker may be dismissed or victimized by his employer for taking part in trade union activity. On the other hand, and employee may adopt go-slow tactics as a protest against a decision of the management.

All these are instances of direct aggression

Indirect or displaced aggression is directed against a scapegoat which (or which) has no direct relation to the reasons for frustration. “Scapegoating” is blaming a particular person for one’s own problems or sense of insecurity for various reasons, one may find it inadvisable or perhaps impossible to attack directly the real source of one’s discontent and so one picks up some innocent person or object against whom or against which to express one’s frustration. For example, an employee, who develops into an agitator on his job because of material problems at home, is said to have displaced his aggressive response from his home to his job.

“A worker may fear his boss because the boss holds his fate in his hands…The resentful worker may pick up a quarrel with his wife, kick the cat, beat the children or, more constructively, work off his feelings by chopping wood, by cursing and swearing or engaging in violent exercise or horse-play of an aggressive nature.”

Aggressive behaviour is wasteful and destructive, and it often manifests itself in the from of hostility or rage and in a variety of other Ways. It is, therefore, essential that a person must be helped to attain his goal and satisfy his needs in some way or the other.

It is interesting to note that in the USA, a few companies have in stalled a dummy resembling the boss in a special where a frustrated Worker may go and punch away at it in order to release his pent up feelings.

Withdrawal can be a symptom of serious psychological disorder. It involves the individuals in withdrawing from the kind of problem-solving effort of which he is capable. The person avoids the situations which prove frustrating. The withdrawal may be physical (leaving the scene), but more likely it is internalized and manifested in apathy. Workers whose jobs provide little in the way of need satisfaction may withdraw in the form of excessive absences, latenesses, or turnover.

Withdrawal may be of two types, viz., regression and emotional insulation.

Regression is essentially not acting one’s age. Frustrated people tend to give up constructive attempts at solving their problems regress to primitive nd childish behaviour. The symptoms regressive behaviour are crying, pouting, horse- play, home-sickness, or emotional control. For example, a person who cannot start his care proceeds to kick it is demonstrating regressive behaviour. Similar when a manager is annoyed and frustrated by may throw a “transfer tantrum.

Emotional insulation occurs when one does not expose on self emotionally, and tries to protect himself on an unrealistic self-concept. For example, the manager, who is always very correct in his dealings with others in the company but never extends himself personally and never extends in informal contacts or activities, may be engaging in a form of emotional insulation.

Fixation is an attempt to gratify a need in a manner which has been proved fruitless; and therefore, the activity does not reduce tension. Brown ways; “Fixation can freeze old and habitual responses and prevent the use of new and more effectual ones” it is activity of persisting in the old way of doing things even when unsuccessful, and it may be the only recourse that people may know. According to Brown, the common symptoms of fixation in an industry are “the inability to accept change, the blind and stubborn refusal to accept new facts when experience as shown the old ones to be untenable, and the type of bhaviour exemplified by the manager who continues to increase penalties.

Resignation or apathy may be defined as the “state of giving up or withdrawing from one’s involvement in a particular environmental station.” It occurs after prolonged frustration, when people lose hope of achieving their goals in a particular situation and, therefore, withdraw from reality and the source of frustration – leaving the entire matter in the hands of fate.

Compromise involves altering one’s objectives either actually or symbolically. It consists of sublimation, rationalization and projection.

Compromise involves altering one’s objectives either actually or symbolically. It consists of sublimation, rationalization and projection.

In Sublimation, a substitute goal is adopted, generally one which is on a higher ethical plane and socially more acceptable. Social service activities by women may substitute for motherhood, taking care of children is something that is a socially desirable compromise activity.

Rationalization refers to an attempt to give plausible (rational), but not necessarily true, explanations for specific, even undesirable, behaviour.

In rationalization, one protects one’s “ego” by giving related but irrelevant reasons or excuses to “explain away” the failure or below-par performance. For example, a department head may not move to a larger, remodeled office

elsewhere on the ground that he needs “to be close to the boss for quick communication.” Although the real reason may be his fear of losing status and influence”. Thus, a person who attempts to justify a behaviour which, he feels, is undesirable is, consciously or unconsciously, indulging in rationalization.

Rationalization may take two forms: the “sour-grape” and “sweet-lemon” forms. The sour-grape rationalization describes the tendency which impels one to conclude that h the failure in achieving the goal did not matter at all because the goal was really not worthwhile. For example, when a manager fails to achieve quality objectives, he may claim that are unrealistic and therefore unimportant. In other hand, the sweet-lemon rationalization represents an attempt at identifyi9ng something good about a situation in which the failure occurs. For example, when a manager fails to get some scheduled job completed, he may say that he would not have more time for its completion.

Projection involves ascribing one’s behaviour to another individual. For example, an unfaithful husband accuses his wife of infidelity or an irritable person accuses another of being irritable; or when a jobs is not completed by an employee, he may blame the foreman for not supplying the raw materials in time.

Some of the other types of defence mechanisms are:

Attention-getting: This device is generally used when one wants to agin the recognition, appreciation or attention of one’s boss or group by putting a number of insignificant questions or by referring to minor problems. In this way, he tries to satisfy his attention need.

Depression is the situation which develops when one has exhausted all one’s energies to gain need satisfaction. One becomes apathetic, chronically unhappy and often fatalistic.

Sabotage, stealing or striking are other mechanisms which may be employed when some needs have not been satisfied, even though strenuous efforts have been made for their satisfaction.

Obsessive thinking refers to a condition in which a person enlarges, out of all realistic proportions, specific problems or situations which he has experienced. For example, an individual employed in a dull, monotonous job requiring little in active thinking may continually mull Over personal or company problems. Though the problems are nto especially grave, his obsession with them may be carried to an extreme. If a job is redesigned, or if a person is allowed to talk it over with other employees, he chances of obsessive thinking might be lessened.

Fight involves an actual leaving, or running away from, a particular situation which causes frustration or anxiety. Compensation is a situation in which an individual with feelings of inadequacy either real or imagined – exerts himself with extra effort in an attempt to overcome his insecure feelings. It may be positive, as when employees, who feel that their abilities are inferior to those of their coworkers, may work particularly hard in certain jobs in order to prove that they can do as well. A superior who has a disagreeable personality may overcompensate in any kind of attempts to practice good “human relations” with subordinated. Compensation is negative, as when persons become aggressive, pushy, overcritical and sometimes power-hungry because of their feelings of inadequacy.

Repression is a mechanism that happens without one’s willing it. It is an almost automatic response whereby one loses awareness of certain incidents that would arousne anxiety in him if they were present in his consciousness. Thus an unpleasant situation with the superior may quickly “forgotten” by a subordinate.

Conversion symbolizes a psychological process where by emotion frustrations are expressed in bodily symptoms of pain or malfunctions. For example, when an employee is unable to finish a scheduled task entrusted to him because to some, guests who are expected at home, he may develop a headache, which is his excuse for the non of ill task. He may develop some fear.

Physical reactions to stress and conflict may develop psychosomatic reactions. The tensions that come anger or resentment can be internalized as a duodenal ulcer or hypertension, mucous colitis, asthma, pay fever, migraine

UNIT – VI

Personnel Records/Reports – Personnel research and personnel audit – Objectives – Scope and importance.