REPÚPLICA CALLERIA 1994 –

CHIMPANZEES No Criteria Failed

1. Grip on a Nut Cracking Stone

Reference: Boesch (1991) Condition: wild

Authors' explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I Species: Pan troglodytes

"On 18 February 1987, Ricci's daughter, 5-year-old Nina, tried to open nuts with the only available hammer, which was of irregular shape. As she struggled unsuccessfully with this tool, alternatively changing her posture, hammer grip and the position of the nut, Ricci, was resting. Eventually, after 8 min of struggle, Ricci joined her and Nina immediately gave her the hammer. Then, with Nina sitting in front of her, Ricci, in a very deliberate manner, slowly rotated the hammer into the best position with which to pound the nut effectively. As if to emphasize the meaning of this movement, it took her a full minute to perform this simple rotation. With Nina watching her she then proceeded to use the hammer to crack 10 nuts ( of which Nina received six kernels and a portion of the other four). Then Ricci left and Nina resumed cracking. Now, by adopting the same hammer grip as her mother, she succeeded in opening four nuts in 15 min. Although she still had difficulties and regularly changed her posture (18 times), she always maintained the hammer in the same position as did her mother. She whimpered whenever encountering difficulties, to attract her mother, but Ricci did not return to her even when she threw a temper-tantrum after unsuccessfully attempting to open a fifth nut for 3 min. In this example, the mother corrected an error in her daughter's behaviour and Nina seemingly understood this perfectly, since she continued to maintain the grip demonstrated to her" (p. 532).

2. Assumed Hunched Carriage of a Crippled Female

Reference: de Waal (1982) Condition: captive

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I Species: Pan troglodytes

"Krom means "crooked". Her body is distorted and she has a hunched up way of walking. This can sometimes lead to amusing scenes. The young apes, who think up new games all the time, once had an "ape Krom" craze. For days on end they would walk behind her, in single file, all with the same pathetic carriage as Krom" (p. 80).

3. Wrist Walking

Reference: de Waal (1982) Condition: captive

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I Species: Pan troglodytes

"Luit has an injured finger and fo o t... Luit does not walk on his hand for days afterwards. (Instead he supports himself on his wrist. Amazingly, all the young apes imitate him and suddenly begin stumbling around on their wrists.)

4. Bathing a Doll

Reference: Gardner & Gardner (1969) Condition: captive

Authors' explanation: D.I. Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: D.I.

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Washoe

"The following is a typical example of Washoe's delayed imitation. From the beginning of the project she was bathed regularly with us, she always had dolls to play with. One day, during the tenth month of the project, she bathed one of her dolls in the way we usually bathed her. She filled her little bathtub with water, dunked the doll in the tub, then took it out and dried it with a towel. She has repeated the entire performance, or parts of it, many times since, sometimes also soaping the doll" (p. 666).

5. Cheek-Suck instead of Conventional Play-face

Reference: Goodall (1973) Condition: wild

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I Species: Pan troglodytes

"Another example of the way in which social behaviour may be imitated occurred when a two-year-old infant, during play sessions, consistently sucked in her cheeks instead of showing the normal play-face. After a few weeks other infants with whom she frequently played also began sucking-in their cheeks during play sessions. The face itself was not novel, as it appears in most infants from time to time; the context in which it can be used, however, was new. Within the next few months the habit gradually disappeared" (p. 167).

6. Wrist Shaking

Reference: Goodall (1973) Condition: wild

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Gilka

"Whilst we have not yet witnessed the diffusion of a new form of gestural or postural expression through the whole group, we have seen a novel behaviour being imitated by a few other individuals. One example concerns "wrist-shaking", in which the hand is shaken extremely rapidly to and fro. ... Not until 1964, at Gombe, was a chimpanzee observed to make this gesture; it suddenly appeared in a juvenile, Fifi (on whom we had made very regular observations throughout the previous year), when she was threatening an older female. A younger individual, Gilka, was with Fifi at the time. The following week Fifi was seen to repeat the gesture; the same week Gilka showed the pattern. Subsequently Gilka used the gesture very frequently indeed, in a variety of contexts; whereas Fifi also continued to wrist-shake, but infrequently and usually only in aggressive contexts. During the ensuing year the gesture was used by both individuals less and less often, and finally appeared to vanish from their repertoires" (pp. 166-167),

7. Lying on Back Dangling Infant With One Foot While Tickling

Reference: Goodall (1973) Condition: wild

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Fifi

"Flo's daughter Fifi was about six years old when her infant brother was born. Fifi showed much interest in the new baby, F lin t... Some aspects of her behaviour in these respects were almost certainly the result of direct imitation of Flo's behaviour. Thus when Flo played with Flint, she frequently lay on her back, dangled him above her with one of his wrists firmly clasped in her foot, and ticked him. This pattern was not seen in any other mother; but when Fifi played with Flint, she frequently held and tickled him in precisely the same manner. ... Seven years later Fifi had her own first infant. ... she repeatedly lay on her back and dangled Freud from one foot whilst she ticked him, a pattern we have still not seen in other mothers. ... After giving birth, Fifi continued to travel about frequently with her mother, who was still almost constantly accompanied by Flint. And it is of particular interest that Flint not only showed a great fascination for his nephew Freud, but also played with him, often by lying on his back and dangling the infant from one foot" (pp. 165-166).

8. Leaves Used to Wipe Bottom

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0 Alternative explanation: I

Species: Pan troglodytes

"Leaves are also used to wipe dirt or blood from the body. On two separate

occasions a two-year-old male, after watching his mother pick up handfuls of leaves to wipe diarrhoea residue from her bottom, picked leaves to wipe his clean bottom. In neither case had he himself defecated" (p. 158).

9. Wrist Mopping Gesture

Reference: Goodall (1973) Condition: wild

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I Species: Pan troglodytes

"During the second month of his first termite season, when an infant was eight months old, he incorporated "mopping" into his gestural repertoire. Mopping is a movement that is rarely if ever seen out of the termiting context and occurs when a number of the insects are crawling about on the surface of the nest. The adult gently places the back of hand and wrist over the termites and gently rotates the hand laterally. This motion causes the termites to become entangled in the hair, or they may bite onto it. The chimpanzee then picks them off with his lips. At first this infant just makes banging-down movements onto objects with the back of his wrist, but after a week he also showed a slight outward rotation of the hand. He did not show the behaviour in context, but mopped almost anything, branches of trees, the ground, rocks, his mother's leg. Occasionally he also mopped at the surface of a termite nest, but was never seen to direct the gesture onto a termite" (p. 156).

10. Wiping Stain on a Dress

Reference: Hayes (1951) Condition: captive

Author's explanation: D.L Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: D.L

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Viki

"Sometimes she saw us using materials to which she would not have access until hours later. Nevertheless, by "delayed imitation," she must try her skill. One night she watched me dab furiously with a wash-cloth, trying to remove spilled milk from my skirt. The garment was left hanging in the bathroom, and Viki was shortly put to bed; but the next morning she took down the skirt, wet the wash-cloth, and rubbed at the spots" (p. 182).

11. Using Sandpaper on a Wooden Stake

Reference: Hayes & Hayes (1952) Condition: captive

Authors' explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Viki

"The experimenter then rubbed the stake with a piece of sandpaper (which Viki had never used before). She promptly copied this procedure, keeping the abrasive side of the paper against the wood. The motion picture record of this and other instances of imitation is available" (p.451).

Hayes (1951) notes that, "Long after we had finished our movie, she was sanding. In fact, she went indoors and spent several hours sanding our furniture" (p. 182).

The following is my transcript of the above incident from Hayes and Hayes' (1951) film of the incident:

Kathy Hayes has hammered the wooden stake firmly into the ground. She then takes a piece of sandpaper of approximately six inches square. She partially wraps it around the stake and rubs it up and down while Viki pays very close attention. Hayes drops the sandpaper and departs. Viki immediately picks it up and holds it up to her face, perhaps in order to smell it. She then holds the stake in her right hand and rubs the sandpaper up and down the length of the stake as shown. There is a jump in film, presumably because before Viki was sat partially obscuring her actions. Now she is sat facing the camera with the stake directly in front of her. She holds the top of the stake steady with her left hand and continues to rub the sandpaper up and down its length.

12. Applying Lipstick

Reference: Hayes & Hayes (1952) Condition: captive

Authors' explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Viki

"Before she was two years old, however, some of her play was much too complex and precise to be so explained [as stimulus enhancement]. For instance, she appropriated a lipstick, stood on the wash-basin, looked in the mirror, and applied the cosmetic - not at random, but to her mouth. She then pressed her lips together and smoothed the color with her finger, just as she had seen the act performed. A similar performance occurred

involving face powder" (p. 451).

NB: Of course the note about face powder fails criterion 5. 13. Sharpening Pencils

Reference: Hayes and Hayes (1952) Authors' explanation: D.I.

Alternative explanation: D.L Species: Pan troglodytes

Condition: captive Criteria failed: 0 Name: Viki

"Many of Viki*s recent imitations have occurred some time after the original demonstration. For instance, when she saw an experimenter sharpen some pencils, she could not imitate immediately; but within a minute she got a pencil from the next room, returned with it, put it in the sharpener, and turned the crank.

14. Washing Clothes Reference: Kearton (1925) Author's explanation: I Alternative explanation: I Species: PanV. Condition; captive Criteria failed: 0 Name: Toto

"One day, as Mr. Percival and I came out of the house, we saw a group of native "boys" sitting on the ground, washing clothes. Taking his place in the circle, accepted apparently without question as an additional helper and hard at work, sat Toto. He was entirely absorbed in the task, washing a cloth with soap in a bowl of water, wring it out in exact imitation of the way the natives worked, then wetting it with a cupful of clean water and wringing it out again" (pp. 80-82).

15. Cleaning Teeth Reference: Kearton (1925) Author's explanation: I Alternative explanation: I Species: PanP.l Condition: captive Criteria failed: 0 Name: Toto

teeth. The native did not use a brush as we do, but a little wooden stick with a frayed and fibrous end, which did its work exceedingly well. Toto picked this up when the boy had laid it down and, like the perfect imitator that he was, put it into his mouth, drawing it to and fro as the boy had done. "

Later Kearton gave Toto a toothbrush:

"He found the method of the white man considerably more difficult than that of the native. He had, ... , a fairly large mouth; but that, instead of making the matter easier, rather added to his difficulties, because he was uncertain into which part of his mouth the brush should be put. First of all he brushed his tongue, and it tickled. Then he tried to eat it.

"Steady old fellow," I said, "Watch what I do," and taking my own brush I held it up to attract his attention. Toto imitated me at once, holding the brush so that it scraped his nose and making him sneeze" (pp. 46-47).

16. Smoking a Pipe

Reference: Kearton (1925) Condition: captive

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I

Species: PanUl Name: Toto

"One day he watched me in silence for a long while as I sat smoking. Then he came towards me and reached up to touch my pipe.

"It's an evil habit, Toto," I said laughing, "You'd better keep off."

But soon I found he was serious. He wanted to smoke. So I gave him an old pipe, wondering what he would do with it. He went back to his chair, put the stem between his teeth, and leaned back luxuriously, closing his eyes. For a time he seemed content, and for some days after that wherever he went he carried the pipe as if it was his most precious possession. Then he realised that I used to put brown grass into the bowl of mine and set fire to it, and he wanted to do the same with his. I let him try. The matches proved a difficulty, but at last he learnt to strike them and to light the top of the tobacco. But he did not realise the secret of the art of smoking and he was puzzled when the flame in the pipe died directly, while mine continued to send forth clouds of smoke.

It was constantly a problem for him and often I felt he was longing for me to show him how it was done. I tried to do so, but my drawing in of breath must have looked to him merely a matter of making faces; so that I roared with laughter when he began to imitate my expression" (pp. 53-54).

17. Extracting Teeth with Pliers

Reference: Kearton (1927) Condition: captive

Author's explanation: D.I. Criteria failed: 0

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Mary

"Almost anything that she sees me do she will try to do. The other day, for example, she had trouble with one of her teeth, and I had to get a pair of forceps and pull it out. It must have been a painful experience, I am afraid, but, in spite of the pain, it interested her. The next day she discovered the pliers, and went off with them. I found her in the garden, half an hour later, with another member of "My Happy Family" - Tommy, my fox-terrier. She was holding the dog down with one hand, while with the other hand she pulled at one of the dog's teeth with the pliers!" (pp. 14-15).

18. Digging on Beach with Bucket and Spade

Reference: Kearton (1927) Condition: captive

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Alternative explanation: I

Species: Pan troglodytes Name: Mary

"Peter [a young boy] was ready enough, and he at once picked up a spade and began some furious digging, making a moat and throwing the sand into a castle. ...

"Leave it to Mary now," I said, "Catch, Mary. Here's your spade." ... She picked it up and looked at it. A little uncertain as to its purpose, she tried to eat the handle; but either she found it hard or else the flavour did not please her, for she soon put it down and then took it up again by the blade.

"Like this, Mary," Peter cried, and he showed her how a spade should be held. With this personal lesson she seemed to grasp the idea at once, though she worked left- handed - as indeed she often does - and soon she was sitting on the ruined top of Peter's castle, holding the spade with both hands and thrusting its blade into the loose sand. ... And in a minute or two Mary had got the knack of digging and was lifting large quantities of sand at each stroke.

"That was our first success, but I was soon reminded once more of the difficulty one always has with a small child. A child can easily be taught to dig, in the same way that we had taught Mary, but it cannot so easily be taught to dig with any purpose: to build a castle, for instance. A child's first idea of digging is simply to lift a spadeful of sand and scatter it one side or the other. It was exactly the same way with Mary. Try as we would, we could not get her either to finish Peter's castle or to build one for herself. And, after all, it wasn't necessary, for she enjoyed her own method of digging quite as much as any other.

"It was the same also with the sand pies. Copying Peter, she began to put sand into a bucket: but she entirely failed to gasp the principle of patting it firm and turning it out as a

"pie". Nevertheless, she obviously thought it the greatest fun to dig sand and fill her pail, and now and then she shouted with glee as she dug deep with the spade" (pp. 84-85).

19. Painting with Paintbrush and Whitewash

Reference: Kohler (1925) Condition: captive

Author's explanation: I Criteria failed: 0

Species: Pan troglodytes

"On the playground a man has painted a wooden pole in white color. After the work is done