This study examines how Twitter can provide instructing information to the larger public during times of crisis. Because crisis communication has begun to incorporate social media and because it allows for the rapid dissemination of information to a large audience, an analysis of providing instructing information via Twitter can guide us in creating information to be disseminated on this social media platform during times of crisis. In crises, such as terrorist attacks, instructing information has the ability to keep people safe and reduce the threat of additional harm to crisis victims.
To help gain further insight about instructing information and social media during times of crisis, this study used a thematic analysis approach with three components of Sellnow & Sellnow’s (2013) IDEA Model serving as a guide in the development of initial code categories to help answer the following research questions:
RQ1: How frequently were the components of internalization, explanation, and action
present in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis?
RQ2: What themes reflecting the components of internalization, explanation, and action
were present in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis?
Using this approach, the study examined tweets published by the BPD during the Boston Marathon Bombing crisis that took place during April 15-20, 2013. More specifically, the study examined how the BPD communicated to the public during the terrorist attack.
Using the given categories of internalization, explanation, and action components of the IDEA Model as a guide, tweets from the data set were coded to determine if multiple
components were included in the message. Further, the frequency of how many times each component appeared throughout the data set is determined. Secondly, the data set was examined
inductively to identify themes that reflected the three components of the IDEA Model. Distribution is not considered because the distribution method of the crisis messaging is via Twitter. Because the IDEA Model is designed to formulate communication that results in more accurate perceptions and better response, findings from this study provide insight for creating crisis messaging to communicate via Twitter and provide further support for the IDEA Model. More specifically, it also provides further support for use with social media. This chapter also presents the research design, procedures, and analysis of data.
Research Design
This study used qualitative methods to examine messaging provided via Twitter during a time of crisis. Qualitative research methods are particularly useful because they have been known to be “more effective in capturing the complexity of communication phenomena, especially communication processes that unfold over time” (Keyton, 2011, p. 58). Therefore, these methods are appropriate for examining crisis situations such as the Boston Marathon bombing and subsequent five-day manhunt because the crisis messaging was disseminated over an extended period of time.
Additionally, qualitative research captures the complexity of the event because it does not artificially limit observation to one or only a few components (Keyton, 2011). Considering a wider variety of factors that impact crisis messaging may help produce a better explanation of the phenomenon because we are able to learn more of what triggers cause a specific response. For example, looking at the frequency and themes of internalization, explanation, and action during a crisis can increase our understanding of gaining and maintaining audience attention, how to explain the details of the crisis situation, and how to tell crisis victims what to do next to protect themselves from additional harm (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013).
Data Collection
The data set includes all tweets posted by the BPD during the Boston Marathon Bombing crisis. The first tweet appeared shortly after the explosion at the finish line on April 15, 2013, and the final tweet was posted on April 20, 2013, after the remaining suspected bomber was taken into custody. This constitutes 147 tweets that were posted April 15-20, 2013. The tweets were captured with screen shots from Twitter. The data set of BPD tweets illustrates crisis messaging provided via Twitter during the Boston Marathon Bombing crisis.
Data Analysis
Because this study examines frequency and themes, a thematic analysis is used to analyze the data. One of the most common methods used in qualitative research, “thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data,” (Braun & Clark, 2006, p. 79). For this study, the unit of analysis is the tweet and the data set will provide insight about how many components of the IDEA Model were included in the tweets posted during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis and what themes developed for each component.
The given categories of internalization, explanation, and action from the IDEA Model will serve as an initial framework to identify frequency within the data set. Then, the data set will be examined inductively to identify themes that arise when the components are used.
The first step of coding determined how many of the IDEA Model’s three components were included within each Tweet. Internalization was identified when a tweet demonstrated relevance of potential risk to the message receiver (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013) or some other aspect of personal impact such as timeliness or proximity. Explanation was identified when a message provided details of the situation, how it developed, or next steps (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013). The action component was identified when the message proposed a specific, meaningful
action the message receiver should take in order to protect themselves and their loved ones from additional harm (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013). The second step determined the frequency of each component throughout the dataset of tweets that were posted during the Boston Marathon Bombing crisis.
Lastly, step three used an inductive approach identify themes that were reflected in the components of internalization, explanation, and action. As previously noted, internalization messages emphasized proximity, timeliness, and personal impact (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013). Explanation messages provided details of the situation or explained what would happen next (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013). Action messages emphasized that the message receiver should or shouldn’t do something (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013).
Additionally, a formative check of reliability was conducted. A second coder was trained on the definitions of internalization, explanation, and action, and was asked to code a random sample of the data set to learn if there was agreement. Using a random numbers table (Pyrczak, 2004), the second coder identified and coded 25 percent of the tweets. To measure interrater reliability, Cohen’s Kappa (Cohen, 1960) was calculated for each component. Previous research has identified a kappa value of .67 as acceptable (Cohen, 1960). For this study, the resulting kappa value for internalization was .74, explanation was .87, and action was .94.
Even though kappa values were considered satisfactory, the researchers further discussed disagreements and came to a consensus about the definition of each coding category. After adjusting the coding scheme, the data was recoded and the researchers came to agreement. Finally, an interpretation of the results will be delivered in the next chapter.
One challenge to note included the notion that using pre-existing models may create some limitations because researchers might inadvertently approach the data with an informed
bias. Therefore, researchers might be more likely to find evidence that is supportive rather than non-supportive of a theory (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). To overcome this challenge and create greater confidence in the research findings, the previously noted intercoder reliability check, or “degree to which two or more coders assign communication behaviors to the same categories or to which two or more coders similarly evaluate a communication act on a scale or index,” (Keyton, 2011, p. G-4), was conducted to ensure what was coded by the author is replicable.
Conclusion
This chapter provided an account of the details that will be used to answer the research questions:
RQ1: How frequently were the components of internalization, explanation, and action
present in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis?
RQ2: What themes reflecting the elements of internalization, explanation, and action
were present in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis?
As previously noted, qualitative methods were used because they have proven effective in capturing the complexity of communication phenomena, such as a crisis, that unfolds over time. The data set was a collection of tweets posted by the BPD throughout the week of the Boston Marathon Bombing crisis.
Using thematic analysis, the study analyzed the frequency of when the BPD utilized the IDEA Model’s given categories in their tweets during the Boston Marathon Bombing crisis. This approach was chosen for this study because it allowed the researcher to work with the prior formulated aspects of the IDEA Model in an effort to identify the type of messages
communicated during the crisis. Further, the researcher examined the data set inductively to identify themes that arose when the components were used in the data set.
Additionally, this chapter revealed an explanation of how the researcher approached anticipated results and findings. This included strengths and weaknesses of a deductive approach to qualitative thematic analysis and how the researcher overcame the challenges posed by this method. Utilizing these methods will help us better understand when and how to communicate specific types of information via social media platforms, such as Twitter during times of crisis.
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
To gain further insight for providing instructing information via Twitter during times of crisis, this study utilized components from Sellnow and Sellnow’s (2013) IDEA model to help answer two research questions, including:
RQ1: How frequently were the components of internalization, explanation, and action
present in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis?
RQ2: What themes reflecting the components of internalization, explanation, and action
were present in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis?
This chapter will present the results of how often the components of internalization, explanation, and action appeared in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis. It will also discuss the seven themes that emerged from the study. First, the internalization themes of proximity, personal impact, and timeliness will be discussed. Secondly, the
explanation themes of details of the situation and what happens next will be presented. And lastly, the action themes of do something or don’t do something will be explained.
It is important to note this study is not a test of the IDEA model. Because previous research has demonstrated including these components in crisis messaging tends to get a better response from the receiver, creates a more accurate perception of the harm and risk associated with the crisis, and helps ensure people take action to contain and reduce further harm, this study examined the frequency of these components and themes that are reflected when the components are used. Consequently, these results help build our understanding of how the components should be applied when providing instructing information in crisis messaging via social media – specifically Twitter.
Frequency
A total of 147 tweets posted from the BPD Twitter account were used for this study. The below table illustrates the frequency or how many times each component was used within a tweet and also provides examples of each component or combination of components.
Table 3.
Frequency of Components No. of
Components Components used Frequency Examples
One
Component Internalization 13 Commissioner Davis: "I offer mysympathies to the families impacted by this horrible tragedy. Those responsible will be brought to justice."
To all who've offered words of strength, encouragement & support, we @ the BPD humbly say, "We hear you. We thank you. God Bless you all."
President Obama: "Every one of us has been touched by this attack on ur beloved city. Every one of us stands w/ you."
pic.twitter.com/bFJeGcgGAr
Explanation 16 Expect to see more police over the coming days. #tweetfromthebeat via
@CherylFiandaca
Commissioner Davis: "The BPD is on high alert. All sworn personnel working around the clock. 12 hour shifts in effect. Days off cancelled."
Two bomb sweeps were made prior to marathon. #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca
Action 14 BPD asking for tips #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca
Community members wanting 2 assist this investigation anonymously can call the BPD's Crime Stoppers Tip Line @ 1(800) 494-TIPS.
Do you know these individuals? Contact [email protected] or 1-800-CALL-FBI (1- 800-225-5324), prompt #3
Table 3.
Frequency of Components (continued) No. of
Components Components used Frequency Examples
Two
Components Internalization andExplanation 60 Boston Police confirming explosion atmarathon finish line with injuries. #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca 22 injured. 2 dead #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca
Park Plaza Castle Open as Resource and Information Center | City of Boston cityofboston.gov.news.default.a… Internalization and
Action 7 BPD asking people not to congregate inlarge crowds #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca
BPD asking people to be on heightened state of Alert #tweetfromthebeat via
@CherylFiandaca
During a shift change, a BPD supervisor told officers, "When u gt home tonite hug your kids once & then hug them again. That's an order."
Explanation and
Action 3 High volume of tips on crimestoppers. Taskforce tip line 617-223-6610 -617-223-6612 [email protected] #tweetfromthebeat via CherylFiandaca
#BPDTrafficAdvisory Expect parking restrictions, road closures & Traffic delays tmrw. Follow directions of signs and safety officials.
#WANTED: Police seeking MA Plate: 116- GC7, '99 Honda Sedan, Color - Green. Possible suspect car. Do not approach. Pic.twitter.com/IVCPtmVwRT
Three
Components Internalization,Explanation and Action
34 Updates to follow. Please clear area around marathon finish line #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca
BPD asking for your patience as investigations process the crime scene #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca There is an active incident ongoing in Watertown. Residents in that area are advised to remain in their homes. More details when available.
According to Sellnow & Sellnow (2013), to be successful, all three components should be used together. For this study, this would mean each Tweet should contain all three
components. However, this was not always the case. What did occur is at least one component was accounted for in 100 percent of the tweets. In fact, it was fairly uncommon that only one component was used by itself. When components were used individually, each component appeared less than 1/10 of the time. However, one interesting thing to note was when components were used individually, explanation was the most commonly used.
Many of the tweets contained multiple components. For example, of the components that were used together, the internalization and explanation components were used together most with 60 tweets – nearly 2/5 of the time. Tweets that contained all three components appeared in the data set 34 times – nearly 1/5 of the time. With that said, we begin to see that most Tweets are used to provide details of the crisis situation and let message receivers know how the situation will affect them. This will be discussed further in the following chapter.
Themes
In regard to themes reflecting the components of internalization, explanation, and action, seven categories were identified within the dataset. These included proximity, personal impact,
timeliness, details of the situation, what happens next, do something, and don’t do something.
Internalization
Sellnow & Sellnow (2013) defined the internalization component as a message that emphasizes proximity, personal impact, and timeliness. Similarly, these three concepts emerged as themes in the BPD Twitter feed during the Boston Marathon bombing crisis.
Proximity. The first category to emerge from the data pertains to proximity. According to
location inhabited by receiver. Of the 114 tweets that contained the internalization component, 87 were categorized within the proximity theme, the most prominent theme of the data set.
Whenever the Tweet mentioned a location, such as the marathon finish line, a specific street, building, or part of Boston, it was included in the proximity category. For example, one Tweet stated, “#CommunityAlert: Per State Police - expect a controlled explosion later in the day on Norfolk Street in Cambridge.” Similarly, if the Tweet included the #CommunityAlert hashtag, it was included in the proximity category because the hashtag indicates the message was intended for members residing in the Boston community.
Personal Impact. Personal impact was the second category to emerge from the data.
Seventy three of the internalization tweets were categorized in the personal impact theme. This was the third most prominent theme of the data set. Sellnow & Sellnow (2013) explain that personal impact addresses “how likely the potential risk is to harm the target and audience and to what degree,” (p. 3). One example is “BPD asking people to be on heightened state of Alert #tweetfromthebeat via @Cheryl Fiandaca.” This tweet has a personal impact to the message receiver because it indicates a potential risk. If a tweet mentioned death or injury, it was also included in this category because casualties indicate a potential risk that could harm the target audience is possible. An example tweet would be “22 injured. 2 dead #tweetfromthebeat via @CherylFiandaca.”
Additionally, when a tweet contained a message that triggered another personal impact, such as an emotional response like compassion or fear, it was included in the internalization component. For example, one tweet stated “To all who’ve offered words of strength,
encouragement & support, we @ the BPD humbly say, ‘We hear you. We thank you. God Bless you all.’” Not only does this tweet exhibit gratitude, it shows the message receiver the BPD is
compassionate and appreciative of the support provided by the target audience. Therefore, it may tug on the heartstrings of the message receiver. Incorporating this type of messaging is useful because a crisis response that is compassionate has been shown to provide a more positive response in the message receiver (Coombs, 1999a). If the message receiver has a positive
outlook on communication coming from the BPD, they may be more apt to react appropriately to the instruction provided in the Tweet.
Timeliness. The timeliness category included Tweets that revealed how imminent the
potential threat is or how important it is to act quickly (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013). Forty-five Tweets were categorized as timeliness. One clear example is when the BPD tweeted about pursuing the second suspect. They stated: “There is an active incident ongoing in Watertown. Residents in that area are advised to remain in their homes. More details when available.” This tweet not only illustrates a high threat potential with the use of the terms “active incident,” it also provides a sense of urgency telling the message receivers residing in Watertown to stay in their homes until more details are available.
Another Tweet that was placed within the timeliness category was “#MediaAlert: WARNING: Do Not Compromise Officer Safety/Tactics by Broadcasting Live Video of Officers While Approaching Search Locations.” Both #MediaAlert and WARNING indicate urgency and an importance to act quickly and, therefore, constitute a factor of timeliness.
Explanation
The explanation component is identified when a Tweet provides details of the situation, how it developed, the science behind it, and the next steps (Sellnow & Sellnow, 2013). Within this component, two themes emerged, including details of the situation and what happens next.
Details of the Situation. When a Tweet provided information about how the situation
developed, what was currently going on, or the science behind the situation, it was categorized in