Selby and Morgan (1996) reviewed some relevant theories of place image in an attempt to understand the destination image-formation process. Place image theory is based on a comparison of destination image at different stages of the tourist decision-making process. Baloglu and McCleary (1999a) relied upon this theory when discussing the stimulus factors of destination image (subsection 2.7.7 below). Place image theory describes the differences in image held by tourists and those are developed and modified depending upon the amount and type of information that is disseminated. This implies that tourists can hold different images of a destination as they go further into the hierarchy of image formation process. Place images are highly influenced by accumulation of knowledge, tourist attitudes and behaviours (Sack 1988 cited Lew 1991, p.3). Lew (1991) claims that marketing and promoting place images and symbols affects the behaviour of tourists in the destination. Kent (1991, p.175) in his study on the factors affecting holiday choices in four European cities (i.e. Venice, Brighton, Cannes, and Salzburg) found that place image was the most important component in the holiday choice process, followed by accommodation and transportation costs.
Ooi (2004 cited Morgan et al. 2004, p.252) explains how people can form their place images based on their experiences and their learning process through different sources, e.g. Media news, TV travel programmes, films, school curricula (geography and history) and word-of-mouth recommendations from friends and relatives. Selby and Morgan‟s study (1996) of place image explains the differences between the organic „naive‟ images of potential tourists‟ initial perceptions and experiential
„revaluated‟ images of actual tourists to the seaside resort of Barry Island in South Wales. The study also examines the value of employing place image in market
research as a tool for formulating tourism policies. Selby and Morgan (1996) claim that place image is an influential tool to measure the performance of tourism destination (strengths and weaknesses) as expressed by both potential and actual tourists. Kotler et al. (1993) define place image as „the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that people have of a place‟. They further hypothesise that an image is more than a belief; a belief is a small piece of that image, e.g. they mention that the Mafia8 was a negative believe about Sicily, which was an element of negative image (larger image) of the island. People have different attitudes about a place, although they might share the same image of that place and they can hold different images of the same place (Kotler et al. 1993; Gertner and Kotler 2004).
Anholt (2008, 2010) postulates that every place has its own images just as any product; it is the symbolic meaning shaping the desired image of that place. Tourism images are very important for the tourism industry to evolve (Anholt 2009 cited UNWTO 2009). Anholt stresses that the country‟s projected image or its reputation in the target market(s) determines its attractiveness and whether the messages are believed or not. Warnaby (2009, p.412) postulates that place image is an established constituent in the literature of place marketing as it influences the perceptions of the place. Shields (1991, 2004) proposes that the interactions and intersections within and between places or regions create a symbolic meaning, which then form their place images and identities and influence the development of such places or regions as tourism destinations. However, Coyle and Fairweather (2005) argue that place images are only one part of the whole representation of the place and they may not provide an accurate symbol about it.
Gold and Ward (1994, p.2) define place promotion as „the conscious use of publicity and marketing to communicate selective images of towns and regions to a target audience‟. Walker (2000) emphasises that place marketing entails an evaluation of a place as a tourism destination to create and project the accurate image in the source market(s). Gold (1994, p.23) claims that place image studies were based on the notion of „stereotypes‟, which are resistant to change and give erroneous representation of a place or a group of people or society as dealing with all have the same attributes.
8 The Mafia is „a secret organisation of criminals that is active especially in Sicily, Italy and the United States‟
(Oxford Dictionary 2010).
Shields (1991) refers to place myth and place image to explain how people associate certain attributes to a place in order to decide whether to visit that place. This means that people build an image of a place, positive or negative, and then the next step is to decide where to go dependent upon that image of a place. Shields explains that place images result from „oversimplification‟, „stereotyping‟ and „labelling‟.
Oversimplification means to reduce the images to one „trait‟; stereotyping entails people amplifying one or more traits over the whole place; and labelling means to brand the place with specific attributes or characteristics (Shields 1991, p.47). Shields further proposes that cultural images and myths add to religious/spiritual or genus loci meanings and uniqueness of a place. Shields gives an example of the genus loci of Rome with its seven hills that give the tourists the emotional and spiritual meaning of the place of Rome (Shields 1991, p.6). Gold (1994, p.23), on the other hand, gives some examples of stereotypes and their role in tarnishing the images of a place and abandoning tourism development, such as the images „London Docklands‟, as lost confidence from industrialists and investors; and Glasgow as a city with „poor houses‟. Therefore, place promotion, according to Gold (1994), plays an effective role in reviving such places and redressing the negative images and stereotypes associated with them (e.g. the campaign of „Glasgow‟s Alive‟ or „Glasgow‟s on the move‟. Medway and Warnaby (2008) suggest that places are now marketed as brands that require creation of positive place images and/or redressing the negative ones.
Warnaby and Medway‟s study (2008) on bridges as iconic structures of places assert the importance of creating a representative and appropriate identity and that image is an important aspect of place marketing.
Most recently, Jackson (2010) investigated the image of Islam and the Middle East in the US Media and found that the general public and education is associating Islam and the Middle East with terrorism, violence, conflict, irrationality, and vengefulness, especially after the 9/11 attacks. These examples show how the region of the Middle East and Islam as a religion are stereotyped by Media reports that indirectly educate the public and, more specifically, the youth and reflect the mainstream beliefs of the society about this region and this religion. Jordan is part of the Middle East and is an Islamic country, which the western public cannot distinguish and identify as a safe, peaceful, moderate, liberal and modern country in that region. However, the JTB and the MOTA still have not branded Jordan as a safe destination, although they claimed
that in the strategy document (2004-2010) and in the local news. As part of this thesis, the researcher analysed the content of the JTB‟s and another 20 Jordanian tour operators‟ websites and revealed that safety was not projected fully; only 5% of words and statements about safety and security were mentioned by the JTB and less than 7%
by the private sector. This result is terrifying and may endanger the image of Jordan, as it is not correctly projected as the safe destination it actually is. The findings of this thesis substantiate that British and Swedish potential tourists are more concerned about safety and security when thinking of a holiday destination; they also evaluated the performance of Jordan (organic images) on this attribute as 46.3% safe. This result confirms another recent research by the JTB (2010) that British tourists still perceive Jordan as a risky destination to visit.
2.8.7 Stimulus/Personal Factors of Image (Baloglu and McCleary