REQUISITOS PARA LA PRODUCCIÓN Y CONTROL DEL PROCESO

Even after 50 years of research, TELL materials design still lacks a specific pedagogical framework. In her 2009a publication, Chapelle states that frameworks and guidelines are required when assessing technology-based materials in terms of the opportunities they provide for L2 learners. Yet there is a dearth of research that evaluates multimedia and TELL systems, or even typical materials, from a theoretical rather than a practical perspective. Here, a few researchers have attempted to set criteria for the evaluation of CALL materials, some of which are based on SLA research findings. For example, Egbert and Hanson Smith (1999, 2007) argue that SLA conditions can inform the design of technology-enhanced materials and suggest ways in which CALL can enhance and promote language learning. In her earlier 2001publication, Chapelle identified an

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SLA-theory-based framework for evaluating CALL by drawing on the concepts and practices of CALL testing materials. In addition to what is shown in Table 3.3 below, she recommends that language materials should also embed the following features, regardless of theory of SLA:

1. Provide help opportunities for learners; 2. Require learners to focus on meaning; 3. Be at the right level ;

4. Tailor activities to fit the learners.

Table 3.3 Characteristics of materials and relation to SLA theories based on Chapelle (2001)

Material

Characteristics

SLA theory Aspect of the theory measured Language learning potential Interaction Input processing Skill acquisition Quality of interaction Utility of selected input Quality of the practice

Meaning focus All Theories Availability of rich, interesting input that provide opportunity to produce and comprehend meaning

Learner fit All cognitive and

psycholinguistics theories

Level of language

Authenticity Systemic linguistics Relationship between input used in instruction and that learners will use in real life

Positive impact Sociocultural theories Benefits, linguistics and non-linguistics of the experience

Practicality Skill acquisition Cognitive processing

Degree of access and skills needed to work on tasks

Tomlinson, (2003) also argues that materials should be based on principles derived from SLA theories. Blake (2008) maintains the view that teaching methodology and CALL design should be informed by what is known about the nature of the SLA process. In contrast, Garrett (2009) questions the need for relying heavily on SLA findings when designing CALL materials. She argues that SLA theory has been developed mainly from studies on English and points out that although there are many studies now that investigate other languages, SLA theory is based on and derived primarily from the study of ESL. Garrett (2009) states that what is applied to English does not necessarily apply to other languages. She does, however, acknowledge the role SLA theory could play in motivating and justifying some technological interference. She also points out that SLA theory is less concerned now with the acquisition of grammatical forms and argues that most SLA research now is related to communication rather than acquisition, that is to sociolinguistics, pragmatics and discourse analysis. In this sense, SLA theory and research can only inform CALL materials when the focus is to provide grammar in the context of a communicative approach.

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When it comes to task-based language learning and technology, Doughty and Long (2003) argue that any language programme must be carefully planned based on a clear understanding of learners’ needs. They identify the ten relevant methodological

principles shown in Table 3.4 below. In their list, they try to integrate interpretations of SLA theory and research findings into a coherent design for the delivery of instruction using CALL. According to these criteria, the designer has to take into account the content of the activities and the type of interaction it results in in order to create a rich learning environment (Schrooten, 2006).

Table 3.4 Methodological principles for CALL (Doughty and Long, 2003, p.52)

In line with Doughty and Long’s (2003) call, Ellis (1998) highlights the need for empirical SLA theory-based evaluation of materials in general. The point here is that any learning activity, whether it is delivered using technology or not, will not be effective if is not pedagogically planned.

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As can be noted from the above discussion, almost all researchers in TELL and SLA alike recommend that materials are designed in accordance with the findings of ISLA research. I turn now to investigate if this is actually the case with published materials. Since the current study is on different types of grammar instruction, the discussion is mainly focused on grammar instruction materials.

Although many new text books and materials in general claim to have progressed beyond the Grammar Translation Method and the Behaviourist Audio Lingual Method, they all seem to have roots in these methods, just with more attractive packaging

(Wells, 2000) and pedagogical guides with communicative recommendations

(Schrooten, 2006). Years of developing EFL/ESL textbooks and published materials have resulted in a heavy reliance on them in classrooms. These materials usually provide grammar rules as summaries at the end or as boxed information within sections of the book. By doing so, there is the assumption that learners’ attention will be drawn to these parts. On the other hand, CD and DVD based teaching materials are often overloaded with graphics, audio and video items so it is sometimes the case that the medium (i.e. technology) dominates the message. Schrooten (2006) started a mission to find existing software that complies with Task-Based Language Learning/TBLL

principles for his study. After conducting an extensive exploratory search, he determined that the bulk of available software packages were still essentially Behaviouristic and that no suitable software was available. Similarly, one of the obstacles Hulstijn (2000) pointed out in his review of the use of computers in experimental SLA was that no commercially available software was suitable for the requirements of the tasks. It has also been argued that although ISLA research findings highlight the importance of directing learners’ attention to form and meaning, very few CALL grammar activities that require attention to both form and meaning had been produced (see Hubbard and Bradin Siskin, 2004). This highlights the more important issue of separation between the fields of TELL and ISLA (Thomas and Reinders, 2010)

In 2007, Levy also argued that although there was a wide scope for the design of

sophisticated grammar programmes using technology. At the time, they were still not on the market and he pointed out that most of the available grammar programmes were still very basic in terms of input processing, error diagnosis and feedback provision. But Schrooten (2006) underscored the point that integrating the use of technology in TBLL is actually not ‘self-evident’ and that ‘the principles underlying a lot of the currently

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available educational software seem to be flatly opposed to the principles of task-based language learning’ (Schrooten, 2006, p.130). Chapelle (2009a), however, rejects previous criticism and points out that theory-based principles stemming from SLA theory had been used in the design of commercial and academic materials for the previous ten years but because material developers were less likely to talk about their materials, the connection was not observed directly.

It is important to note here that every ISLA theory or model has its limitations, as was made clear in the previous section. No single theory accounts for the cognitive

processes, the nature of the input and the external and internal factors that are involved in L2 acquisition. Therefore, a single theoretical framework can also not provide a full account of what is needed in TELL software. A mixture of all these approaches is what is usually called for to promote acquisition in the classroom (as shown in the tables presented above). Furthermore, evaluating technology-based materials requires a holistic approach, looking at design, and implementation at the minimum without overlooking the theoretical framework and implications.

In the next section, I examine the research on TELL and Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL) in more detail, as one of the aims of the current study is to evaluate the effectiveness of different task-based types of input in a TELL environment and to investigate how the use of user-behaviour tracking technologies can help us understand the learning process.