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Literacy, the ability to read, write and comprehend information is important regarding understanding and use of English language. Proficiency is defined as how well an individual may perform using English language within the context of their environment. In other words, proficiency is the degree of knowledge, skills, and abilities that one may possess in the context of their environment, and has the potential to impact their abilities (adequately or inadequately) to use English language. Essentially, there are three types of literacy: print, text, and functional. Print literacy is the ability to read, write, and

interpret English language based on background knowledge. Text literacy is the ability to interpret text in different forms. Functional literacy is ability to perform a task while using English language (Nielsen-Bohlman and Institute of Medicine, 2004). Written English language can be very difficult to read for ESL adults. To address English language literacy issues, the education industry has developed protocols to address ESL adult English language literacy concerns. One protocol is Tests of Adult Basic Education Complete Language Assessment System—English (TABE CLAS-E) form 9 and 10. This is an established curriculum that addresses reading and comprehension of English

language amongst other factors that influence ESL English language literacy and proficiency. The ESL adult taking the test is evaluated using the National Reporting System (NRS) protocol, which provides an evaluation of literacy levels (e.g. beginner, low, high, and advanced literacy levels) (McGraw, 2014). Although tests on English language literacy and proficiency are intended address ESL abilities to read and comprehend written English language, there are still challenges on ability to read and interpret written English language.

Condelli and Wrigley (2006) conducted a study on factors that influence English

language literacy and language abilities on ESL adults. Their results indicated that ESL adults experience difficulties decoding and comprehending written English language. Difficulties with cognitive processing of written information and complexity of syntax meaning can be difficult considering English-as-a second language individuals (Yildiz- Genc, 2009). According to Anderson (2004), individuals that are literate in a language other than English experience many challenges with their reading abilities more often reading English language, than with use of their native language. What are the challenges that ESL individuals experience while reading written English language? What are the challenges that impact ESL adults reading comprehension? With respect to cognitive challenges on the ESL adult, what are the processes/strategies by which they read and interpret English language? Fundamentally, it is important to understand the definitions of reading, comprehension, comprehension monitoring, cognition, and

metacognition, as these are all aspects critical to understanding written English language. Reading is the process by which an individual takes lexical knowledge and skills and applies it to a body of text to process and understand information (Rashidi and Piran, 2011). Comprehension is the ability to understand written text and apply vocabulary knowledge and strategies to understand syntax (Hancock, 1998). Comprehension monitoring is utilized to consistently evaluate intentions while reading text, and regulate flow of understanding text (Baker & Brown, 1984). Cognition is a process utilized by an individual to perceive and understand information in his/her contextual environment. Metacognition is often referred to as how someone may understand their thinking

processes to organize their ideas to assess a situation (Anderson, 2002 and Flavell, 1976). Particularly, metacognition processes can aid ESL individuals with ability to use certain reading strategies to read and understand English language and can lead to adequate to high levels of English language proficiency (Keshavarz and Assar, 2009). According to Karbalaei (2010), the degree of success in reading and understanding English written language is deeply rooted in the efficiency of strategy utilized by ESL adults. Preparing and planning on adequacy of reading, decision-making processes on when to use certain reading schemes, monitoring strategy use, and use of strategy and evaluation of strategy

on reading text are four central components used in reading information written in English. All of these components should be collectively utilized as English language reading strategies and not isolated.

Anderson (2004) stated that mental models have been constructed to understand how ESL adults read written English language. In particular, strategies such as bottom-up, top-down, and interactive models are considered three dimensions of reading models utilized by ESL adults. Depending on the reading activity, ESL adults systematically utilize these models so that they understand meaning of written English language text (Hsiao and Oxford, 2002). But, are these models beneficial to an ESL adult’s ability to read and comprehend written English language? Firstly, a review of model types utilized by ESL adults to read and understand written English language is needed. Essentially, bottom-up model is related to how an ESL adult may comprehend information

considering the flow of information (linear text flow). In this model, the preliminary steps are decoding the syntax (letters, words, and phrases). Then, the individual decodes the sentence and makes meaning of the information they read. English-as-a-second language adults make inferences on words to facilitate understanding of written English language text when they use bottom-up models. Use of this model is highly dependent on ESL adult English language proficiency, with respect to their vocabulary knowledge (Liu, 2014). Top-down model consists of the reader using previous knowledge of information they read to understand syntax. English-as-a second language adults may activate their content schema, or background knowledge of the topic to help facilitate an understanding of the subject (Lin and Chern, 2014). Paribarht, and Wesche (1999)

indicated that background knowledge has the potential to influence model/strategy use by ESL adults. Interactive model is the combination of top-down and bottom-up model use by ESL adults, which enables their ability to instantaneously decode text and use

background knowledge to read and understand text.

Although bottom-up, top-down, and interactive models provide an understanding of fundamental reading strategies utilized by ESL adults, there are studies that describe the effect of using these models/strategies, on ESL adult reading comprehension. A study conducted by Parry (1991) discussed the effects of ESL adult English language proficiency on their ability to read written English language, while using bottom-up model strategy. A small population of ESL adults was utilized for Parry’s (1991) study, which included four adults from different countries. Each of the four adults’ English language reading proficiency was evaluated and determined to be low or intermediate levels. Text chosen for the study was Anthropology (linguistics focus), which was considered to have challenging vocabulary words. Parry’s (1991) study goal was to determine if ESL adults could identify challenging words in the text, and if they were successful using bottom up strategy to understand word meaning. Furthermore, if

vocabulary words in the text were challenging, factors influencing their misunderstanding of the vocabulary words were identified. Results indicated that use of the bottom-up model led to ESL adults skipping words in text due to difficulties with understanding them. It was also noted that ESL adults translated English written words back in to their native language. Furthermore, ESL adults indicated that more time was needed to understand words in the text that were unfamiliar to them. Finally, since ESL adults had

low to intermediate levels of vocabulary knowledge, it was determined they may have guessed more words due to their inability to understand the meaning of the words. This could also be the result of ESL adult low or intermediate English language proficiency levels when they read written English language. In summary, Parry’s (1991)study provides an indication that use of bottom-up model strategy by ESL adults with low to intermediate English language proficiency led to word translation back into their native language. Use of this strategy by ESL adults with low to intermediate English language proficiency also indicated that they adults skipped words while they were reading them in text. Finally, ESL adults with low to intermediate English language proficiency utilizing this strategy have the potential to negatively impact their written English language reading comprehension. The next study aims to provide an overview of the impact that top down model strategy use by ESL adults has on their reading comprehension abilities, and compares it to their use of bottom up strategy.

A study was conducted on the types of strategies utilized by ESL adults to read English language. Yildiz-Genc (2009) utilized 15 ESL adults with an intermediate level of English language reading proficiency. Participants read written English language text without a time constraint, followed by an interview on what they had read. The study revealed that the two strategies utilized by adults were bottom-up and top-down strategies. Top-down strategy was utilized the most often, likely due to participant English language proficiency. Use of top-down and bottom-up strategies have often been coined strategic reading according to Anderson (2003). With respect to bottom-up strategies, participants indicated they were challenged with word meaning and there was a constant focus on root word. They also indicated using certain written English language sentences to interpret and connect their ideas on previous sentences. Participants also noted they translated English words, sentences, and phrases into their native language. Regarding complex sentences, participants indicated they split each of them in order to understand sentence meaning. They also re-read information in order to understand the meaning of the sentences. Finally, participants utilized their background knowledge of the text they read in order to understand the meaning. Use of top-down processing of written English language by participants indicated that they predicted information in sentences prior to reading the whole sentence, and either confirmed or rejected their predictions. Yildiz-Genc (2009)concluded that participants used their background knowledge of the situation so that they could understand the text, metacognitive reading strategies to read and comprehend text, and they utilized their knowledge of English language to read and interpret written English language. Regarding top-down strategy use by adults, Hammadou (1991) also indicated that individuals utilize top-down processing of information often when reading written English language text. Use of background knowledge to interpret unfamiliar written English language text by an ESL individual has also been referred to as lexical inferring, a cognitive process that is utilized by the reader to understand meaning of a word (Paribarht, and Wesche, 1999). Lexical inferring strategy will be discussed in further detail later in this chapter. The next study explores interactive model strategy use by ESL adults and the effects on their reading

comprehension.

Interactive model is most widely utilized and consists of ESL adults instantaneously decoding syntax (Barnett, 1989). Interactive models combine use of bottom-up and top-

down models to read written English language (Lally, 1998). A study conducted by Fatemi et al (2014) discussed interactive model strategy use by ESL adults and its effect on their reading comprehension. Fatemi et al (2014) also wanted to understand the effects of ESL adult style of thinking. English as-a-second language participants were

categorized as field independent or field dependent type strategy participants. Field dependent cognitive style participants use external cues to understand written English language text (rely on general perspectives on the meaning of text), while field independent type strategy participants use internal cues to understand written English language text (critically analyzes information in text to understand it). Fatemi et al (2014) utilized each of the cognitive styles in the study to understand its impact on ESL adults reading strategy (bottom-up/top-down). The study consisted of 80 ESL

participants; their reading comprehension abilities were evaluated prior to the start of the test to understand if each of the participants were proficient using written English

language. Results indicated they were highly proficient with utilizing written English language. Participants were divided into two groups each with 40 ESL participants. Two tests were performed (pre-test and post-test) that were related to reading comprehension. The pre-test was performed to ensure heterogeneity between each of the groups. Results from the pre-test suggested that scores from ESL participants in group one and two that used top down strategy and bottom up strategy (field dependent and field independent cognitive styles of reading), indicated no statistically significant difference between the two groups. This was most likely the result of ESL participants (group one and two) equivalent general knowledge of the subject they read during the study. The posttest conducted revealed different results with respect to each group. Results indicated that scores from participants that utilized top-down strategy (field dependent and field independent cognitive style) and field dependent cognitive style performed better than those whom utilized field independent cognitive style while reading written English language. Regarding bottom-up strategy use by participants, they performed better when using field independent compared to field dependent cognitive style while reading written English language. The reason for these results could be that participants that used top down model and field dependent cognitive style generally viewed the text they read by using their knowledge of the subject, which is a feature of top down strategy. On the other hand, participants that utilized top down strategy and field dependent did not have background knowledge of the subject, and thus did not comprehend the text in the same manner as the ESL participants that utilized field dependent cognitive style. Regarding bottom up strategy use by participants, they scored high regarding field independent cognitive style use, compared to field dependent cognitive style use. The reason for these results could be that participants were more accustomed to use of field independent technique when reading text that required them to critically analyze the text rather than use their general knowledge of the text. In summary, the results from each group in the posttest indicate that use of bottom up and top-down strategy has an impact on participant ability to read and comprehend written English language. Given participants used both models to understand the text, these can be considered interactive use of the models (interactive model). Based on results, interactive model strategy use by participants can be considered useful, depending on the text and cognitive style utilized by participants to read and comprehend English written language.

ESL adult English language proficiency. Parry’s (1991) study indicated that ESL adults with low to intermediate levels of written English language proficiency use bottom-up model and related strategies to read and comprehend written English language. In Yildiz- Genc (2009) study, ESL adults with intermediate English language proficiency used top- down and bottom-up model and related strategies, while they read and comprehended written English language. Overall, Fatemi et al’s (2014) study provides evidence that participants with high English language proficiency use interactive model and other related strategies to read written English language. One topic that was not covered in each of the studies, and could have an effect on the results of this study, was participant use of vocabulary word type, and text genre in text corpora. As vocabulary word type and text genre have the potential to impact on ESL adult ability to read and comprehend written English language, these factors will be covered in a forthcoming chapter.

2.1.1 Section Summary

This section provided the reader with an understanding of mental models utilized by ESL adults to read written English language. Studies in this section indicate that the type of strategy utilized by ESL adults to read and understand written English language has the potential to impact their ability to read and comprehend English written language. In particular, bottom-up strategy model appears to help the ESL adult with decoding syntax and other related written English language (e.g. phrases). Top-down strategy model helps the ESL adult reader with using their background knowledge of the reading material to help facilitate reading comprehension processes. Both strategies (top-down and bottom- up) are important, however participants in aforementioned studies and in the researcher’s studies will not be able to judge their use of these, as they would have to possess

remarkable metacognitive skill. Nevertheless, metacognition is the theoretical process and will be utilized in the researcher’s data collection processes. English as-a-second language adults utilize interactive model frequently when they read written English language. Strategy use by ESL adults has the potential to aid in their ability to organize ideas and process written English language according to Hsiao and Oxford (2002) and Barnett (1989). The aforementioned models utilized by ESL adults to read written English language could be applicable on the flight deck. Since ESL flight crewmembers read written English language on QRH checklists and crew alerting systems on the flight deck, use of these models by ESL flight crewmembers could be beneficial. On the other hand, if these models are utilized on the flight deck, ESL flight crewmember English language proficiency should be noted, as this could be an indicator of which model is utilized to facilitate their understanding of written English language text on the flight deck. Figure 6 is a paradigm illustrating connections between ESL adults’ use of bottom- up strategy, top-down strategy, interactive strategy, and ESL adults’ written English language proficiency.

Figure 6 Influence of Model Use by ESL adults

Next section describes another strategy utilized by ESL adults to read and comprehend written English language.

2.2 ESL Adults Cognitive Processing of Words in Sentences and use of Lexical