Respecto a la pérdida de productividad ocasionadas

Each factor is examined in turn and the results are interpreted for different ethnic groups. Firstly, the effect of age is examined. Overall, there is no statistically significant difference in overcrowding across stratified age groups for each ethnicity. This shows that local age composition does not play an important role in overcrowding. Additionally, a 1% increase in the share of married couples reduce overcrowding by 0.1%, 0.1%, 0.1% and 0.3% for White British, White Irish, White Other and Indian. This is because, intuitively, an increased share of married couples in an area might demonstrate an increased share of households which have improvements in financial ability and a stronger determination to settle long term in the area; in turn, their decision on housing related consumption would be more considerate and the chance of overcrowding for that group would be reduced as a result. However, for the rest of Asian and Black households, the marriage effect is not statistically significant in mitigating their group level overcrowding, which might suggest that the in- migration of this type of cohort is less likely to represent either an improvement in their overall financial ability or a decision for long term settlement in the area.

Having more females in an area overall does not affect the co-ethnic group overcrowding significantly. However, an extra person in an average household almost certainly increases the rate of overcrowding for that group as shown by the results albeit the effect is weak. The extra person always imposes constraints on the existing housing stocks of the area and increases the chance of space shortage. Specifically, one extra person in an average White British household would increase the group’s overcrowding rate by 0.06%. For Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi households, the increase of overcrowding rate due to 1% increase in population of these ethnic groups, is around 0.05%, 0.02% and 0.03% respectively. For African households, the increase is about 0.04%.

Turning to ethnic group level financial ability, two variables are used to estimate its effect on group level overcrowding rates. Since the hourly wage has almost 0 effect on overcrowding across ethnic groups and none of the results are statistically significant. they will not be commented further,

and one must recognise the limit of low cell counts when computing income for ethnic groups using sample surveys such as Labour Force Survey. However, for individual data model, the data could be much more useful for serving the research purpose. On the other hand, the occupational score is derived from the Census data which contain information on the full population in the UK. The effect of this variable is examined in detail. Since a rise in one’s occupational status reflects their higher financial ability and socioeconomic status, therefore it would reduce the likelihood for them to compromise in an overcrowded situation. The extent to which this is true across various ethnic groups is validated by its estimates in Table 14 again. From the results, one can conclude that there is

generally a negative relationship between occupational status and area level overcrowding rate. Significant results have been found for the White British, White Irish, White Other, Bangladeshi, Other Asian and the Chinese and all of them show a reduction in overcrowding rate due to a 1% increase in occupational score. The exceptional case is the Black Caribbean group in which a rise in occupational status has led to around 0.1% rise in overcrowding, perhaps due to their generally lower distaste towards space or room sharing such that households may increase (“welcome”) more members into the dwelling unit in response to rises in income.

Considering the percentage share of movers of each ethnic group affecting their local overcrowding rate, the variable is used as a proxy for the group’s internal mobility, i.e. how easy and willing each group is to move to alternative parts of the UK. It is derived such that the share of the moving population only captures one snapshot of the moving pattern of each ethnic group around the census years. These patterns could vary greatly from time to time as also being indicated by the summary statistics in the Appendix Section C1.

For the analysis period concerned, internal migration is not effective in mitigating overcrowding for the British, Irish, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Other Asian and African due to the historical evolution of settlement in each ethnic group. While the local British possess little internal migration premium, migrants from the Ireland which is geographically the closest compared to the other groups, are likely to have more monotonic internal migration routes. Their longer migration history is also likely to affect the effectiveness of further migration. The South Asians and the other Asians are known to go through encapsulation in central cities (Peach, 1998), forming large concentrations and initial housing deprivation (if any) is likely to be sustained. For Africans, a significant proportion has historically possessed refugee or asylum seeker status, making them reside disproportionately in the social housing sector. This could be one of the reason migration is treated as a less effective way to remove housing deprivation.

On the other hand, White Other, Chinese and Caribbean tend to have relatively larger presence in the private rented sector, therefore, they are likely to be more mobile. From several past

literature, Laud (2015, p98-99) has documented the lives and practices of the Caribbean group in the UK as being “accustomed to travelling abroad to find suitable work and proved highly adaptable to new nations and labour markets” as well as being “industrious and adventurous” while Champion et al. (1998) also identified the Chinese group are generally more migratory than the other ethnic minority groups and tend to move longer distance. In these situations, migration generally reduces overcrowding for these groups but again this depends on a further range of factors such as chain migration and/or the culture expression of migration of co-ethnic members. A 1% increase in the share of movers from the White Other group reduces their group level overcrowding rate by 0.11%; for the Chinese, this is around 0.14% and for the Caribbean, the reduction is around 0.19%.

The presence of ethnic minority group concentration is another factor that could influence the overcrowding rate of each ethnic group. As discussed earlier, for collectivistic ethnic minority groups, a high degree of clustering of members from the same ethnic background tend to find mutual support to be effective for helping new arrivals improve their information and better integrate within the society, therefore one expects for them, the more clustered a group is, the more likely they are to improve their housing condition through this method. For example, Peach (1998) observed the existence of the South Asian encapsulation in some inner cities. Although these bubbles do not exhibit a strong habit of migration, they still demonstrate steady improvements in socioeconomic progress and housing conditions as their co-ethnic concentration grows larger and their integration with the rest of society becomes more effective over time. On the other hand, for individualistic ethnic groups, a larger presence of co-ethnic group concentration would potentially indicate a generally lower socioeconomic aspiration of the members, therefore more deprived housing situations; on the contrary, a larger concentration could potentially mean the individuals put less focus on personal socioeconomic achievement. If this generalisation is to some extent true, it would help explain why extra housing strain could be brought to the neighbourhood as the concentration becomes larger through the inflow of new immigrant streams.

Specifically, the South Asians, Other Asians, Other White and Africans tend to have positive concentration effect. Among the significant results, 1% increase in the clustering index for the White Other reduces overcrowding by 0.2%; for Pakistani, this is 1.3% and for Africans, this is -0.8%. The opposite significant effect is found for White Irish: 1% increase in the degree of clustered-ness increases the overcrowding rate by 2.9%. For Chinese and Caribbean, the concentration effects are not statistically significant.