6.2.1. Chapter 2: 'Diagnosing constraints to market participation of small ruminant producers in Northern Ghana: An innovation system analysis'
Chapter 2 was motivated by the observation that there is significant local demand for livestock products in Ghana, but then, smallholder farmers in Northern Ghana do not fully exploit the available market opportunities. To provide a descriptive understanding of the reasons for smallholders’ low production and participation in livestock markets, this study investigated 1) the prevailing practices of small ruminant production and marketing in crop-livestock smallholder households in Upper West Region of Ghana, and 2) the farm level and higher level constraints related to technical, infrastructural and institutional that hinder improved small ruminant production and market participation by smallholder farmers.
The findings showed that combined technical and institutional constraints restrict most smallholder farmers to non-commercial animal husbandry practices. However, few individuals and communities were successful to a certain extent in addressing the constraints. The livestock production system is characterised by tethering in the rainy and cultivation season, from May to October, and free-range management in the dry season, from November to April. Tethering is marked by weight loss due to restricted movement and feeding as well as high mortalities due to exposure to elements of the weather and unavailable veterinary services. Free ranging or releasing animals to roam on their own takes place after harvesting of field crop in October. Free ranging is linked with inadequate feeding during late dry season when communal pastures are routinely burnt as well as high rates of theft. These practices were connected with the constraints farmers experienced namely inadequate feeding, diseases, lack of water during dry season and theft. Further analysis at stakeholder workshop showed that these constraints persisted largely due to institutional reasons. These included structural limitation of arable land, communities’ values that are skewed towards crop production more than towards animal husbandry, weak support systems for animal production and health services delivery, and ineffective traditional and formal structures for justice delivery. The combined technical and institutional constraints reflected on market participation. Most farmers sell animals during cultivation in low-
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value markets to cater for labour, fertilizer and seeds. Only few smallholders could afford to sell animals in order to take advantage of high market demand (high-value markets) on occasions such as Christmas, Easter or the Ramadan festival. It was concluded that market production or intensification requiring high use of external inputs is not practical for most smallholder farmers.
6.2.2. Chapter 3 'Institutional dimensions of veterinary services reforms: Responses to structural adjustment in Northern Ghana’
One of the important institutional constraints that hinder smallholder farmers is high livestock mortality that results from inadequate provision and the weak organization of veterinary services. This institutional constraint was linked to decentralization and privatization reforms of veterinary services since the mid-1990s as part of structural adjustment policies implemented by most sub-Saharan African country governments including Ghana. I examined the effects of these policy changes on delivery and smallholders’ use of veterinary services in Lawra and Nadowli districts in Northern Ghana by assessing 1) the changes in delivery of animal health services, and 2) the responses of stakeholders to the reforms.
The veterinary service reforms were accompanied by two significant changes: a substantial reduction in the allocation of financial and human resources to public veterinary services and the placing of the Veterinary Service Department under a non- veterinarian director at the district level. Besides, the broader social context in addition to the veterinary reforms affected farmers’ use and delivery of veterinary services. For example, demand for public veterinary services shifted from cattle farmers to owners of both small ruminants and cattle due to incessant theft of cattle brought about by ending cattle branding for identification and weak structure of informal and formal justice delivery system. The Procurement Act 663 of 2003 made it cumbersome for Veterinary Services Directorate (VSD) to access Central Government funds for importation of vaccines. The consequences of the reforms on public sector delivery of veterinary services included irregular mass vaccinations against contagious animal diseases, greater inequity of service delivery, collapse of quality controls of drugs, proliferation of supply of drugs from informal sources on the market, and moonlighting of public (para) veterinarians for private purposes. In the private sector, many farmers and Fulani herdsmen purchased and administered veterinary drugs that had not been subject to quality control. Only a few communities self-organised to access veterinary services indicating limited willingness of farmers to pay for effective veterinary services. Thus, institutional change is not a one-off event. It triggers further
118 changes in other levels of social organization with unintended consequences. This calls for policy makers and analysts to monitor and coordinate changes in several fronts.
6.2.3. Chapter 4: ‘Scaling out livestock supplementary feeding technologies in northern Ghana: Co-learning and adaptation challenges’
Animal production systems literature indicates that, next to health, nutrition is the most important constraint in smallholder ruminant production. Most researchers have established that supplementary feeding with leguminous fodder and crop residues such as groundnut haulms is important to provide high quality protein that can offset limitations of scanty and low-quality natural pastures and crop residues during the dry season. This study examined the extent to which interventionists and farmers co- learned and adapted during the process of supplementary feeding interventions (using
Cajanus cajan, Stylosanthes hamata and groundnut crop residues) that were part of
projects (1996 to 2009) to improve smallholder small ruminant production in Upper West Region of Ghana.
The findings showed that scientists and MoFA officials employed participatory methods during identification of problems and opportunities phase. However, implementation decisions were mostly made by MoFA officials. After the end of the projects no farmer in the two communities adopted Cajanus cajan as fodder because they were concerned about allocating land and labour for its cultivation; only one farmer maintained a Stylosanthes fodder bank. Of the farmers in N. Tankyara and Orbili, 35% and 6% respectively, adopted supplementary feeding with crop residues. Even though groundnut crop residue supplementary feeding practice was labour intensive, the N. Tankyara farmers adopted it due to persistent theft (they could keep their livestock at the homestead) and declining soil fertility. In contrast, the agriculturists attributed non-adoption to farmers' attitude, formal educational background, community leadership and religion. Thus, in the non-adoption of fodder bank technologies, the agriculturists did not adjust their cognitive and linear view of R & D to take on board household and institutional factors that shaped farmers actions namely labour constraints, concerns about food security, scarcity of arable land, and livestock theft. This chapter showed that it is pertinent for interventionists to consider whether outcomes of activities will be useful or not for farmers or local target group. Otherwise scarce resources may be wasted on unbeneficial results.
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6.2.4. Chapter 5 ‘Development of livestock keeping among positive deviant smallholders in Northern Ghana’
Consistent with agricultural innovation system literature, the first study in this thesis indicated that smallholder farmers characterised as positive deviants produced novelties by accumulating livestock assets and participating in high-value markets. This study, therefore, examined how positive deviants succeeded to introduce change and the strategies they employed to overcome technical and institutional constraints in their environment.
The results show that 9 out of 295 livestock keeping households were perceived by their community members as positive deviants. Five of the positive deviants had herd sizes (i.e. sheep, goats and cattle) exceeding the population mean plus two times standard deviations. The flock growth was induced by critical experience of cattle theft, interactions with colleagues and agents of development organizations, and reliance on non-livestock enterprises such as crop farming or off-farm trading for consumption needs. The accumulated experiences by the positive deviants resulted in a steady shift from minimal to increased investment in livestock husbandry. The changes included moving from free-ranging to organized herding, regular use of preventive and curative animal health care, organization of household or community efforts to prevent livestock theft, and selling animals during high-value market seasons. Though they possess large flock size, the positive deviants sell proportionately fewer livestock than non-positive deviants. This indicates that agricultural growth does not translate into higher market participation.