4 MARCOS DE REFERENCIA
4.1 MARCO CONTEXTUAL
4.2.1 RESPONSABILIDAD SOCIAL EMPRESARIAL (RSE) ACOTACIONES A SU CONCEPTO
cannot ensure the representativeness of the entire population; the artificial representation of the reality generated by statistical aggregation of opinions; and several inequalities within a society that a public opinion analysis might reveal, such as unbalanced education representativeness and media access (Splichal, 1999).
Nevertheless, as indicated above, with the advent of the eWOM we enter a new sphere of analysis in which it is possible to find many instances of public opinion. In particular, the character of social media allows large numbers of people to participate in the public opinion-building process. However, research in this field is still in its early stages (Zhou and Moy, 2007). Since eWOM and the related opinions shared online serve as an information source and a potential new public sphere, theories related to its media effects and information processing are relevant in this context and are addressed below.
2.3. Media effects studies
In this study, a review of the main theoretical perspectives and empirical findings in the field of computer-mediated communication (CMC) is provided, with a specific focus on the role CMC plays in the context of perceived public opinion online in the tourism domain. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) systems, defined as “any communicative transaction that occurs through the use of two or more networked computers” (McQuail, 2005, p. 551), have become an integral part of many interpersonal relationships. Thanks to CMC, it is possible to share and read others’ opinions, and thus continually form and re-form our impressions and evaluations about products, services, people, places, and countless objects (Walther et al, 2009). However, the way CMC affects communication among individuals and how people form their opinions are still open questions in interpersonal CMC research (Walther and Parks, 2002; Walther, 2010). When addressing the topic of computer-mediated communication, Walther and Parks (2002) make distinctions among different theories, which are classified according to the way users respond to the characteristics of CMC systems, and which are:
- cues-filtered-out theories, which argue that the nonverbal cues characteristic of CMC lead to impersonal orientations among users;
- experiential and perceptual theories of CMC, referring to the communicators’ characteristics, which in turn might affect the perceived communication systems; and - cues-filtered-in theories (such as interpersonal adaptation and exploitation of media), which reflect the ways in which communicators treat the cue limitations of CMC systems compared to face-to-face communications.
Following the cues-filtered-in theories, a theory relevant to this study is Social Information Processing Theory (Walther, 1992; 2009), which states that online interpersonal communication is a function of the content, style, and timing of verbal
16 Chapter 2: Theoretical Background
messages. In particular, the temporal dimension seems to be a crucial element in the development of an impression, due to the fact that a CMC requires more time for impression development, as it contains less information than a face-to-face interchange. However, as noted by Antheunis et al. (2010), the advent of social media added a new perspective to Social Information Processing Theory, as social media are characterized by pictorial information and elements of socio information/affective components which might reduce the uncertainty in communication among strangers, and thus increase the effectiveness of an online message.
2.3.1. (New Media) Agenda Setting and Spiral of Silence theories
Agenda Setting theory (McCombs et al., 1972; Weaver et al., 1981) receives extensive support from empirical evidence in the literature, which posits that media coverage affects the development of individuals’ opinions about social issues. This theory connects media coverage (salience about an object in mass media) to a public agenda (the perception about the object within a group). The two dimensions of agenda-setting are analyzed:- media salience, first order: represents the prominence of a topic, meaning the selective attention of the public to a specific object; and
- media salience, second order: refers to favorability — that is, the attitude/evaluation of the object (positive or negative tone/opinion polarity).
With the advent of social media and the related eWOM, research has expanded its interest to the new media domain (see Figure 2.2). McCombs (2005, p. 546) argues that, “whether the basic agenda setting effects of news media continue in much the same fashion as the previous decades or eventually disappear because of the changing media landscape, measuring these effects will remain high on the research agenda for at least the near term”. In a recent study, Meraz (2009) investigates the influence of traditional media on social media agenda-setting in political blog networks, showing how the agenda-setting of traditional media has lost power. In her study’s conclusions, Meraz (2009, p. 701), argues that “as predicted by long tail media theory (Anderson, 2005), citizen media's efficacy (e.g. eWOM) is in its aggregate effect, an effect which is able to blunt traditional media's singular agenda setting effect.” However, the assessment of the effectiveness of the agenda setting implications (e.g. a change in public agenda) cannot be reduced to the analysis of prominence and tone, but should also consider the extent of people’s exposure to the messages, their level of interest towards the topic, and the overall credibility of the contents viewed. A person’s perception of public opinion in online media can be influenced by several things.
2.3 Media effects studies 17
Figure 2.2. Media reality, the Public Agenda (McCombs et al., 1972, 2005), and the role of eWOM
Different theories have helped researchers understand how perceived opinions might differ from measured opinions analysis. In particular, the spiral-of-silence theory (Noelle-Neumann, 1974) suggests that a perception of a homogenous opinion within a society might influence people to conform to that opinion or keep silent.
This situation may be due to the fact that individuals who perceive themselves as part of a minority are often unwilling to expose themselves because of their fear of being isolated, creating the so-called “spiral-of-silence process” as the coverage of certain opinions generates the impression that those opinions are the dominant public opinion.
According to Ho and McLeod (2008), people involved in computer-mediated communication (CMC) are more likely to expose their opinions, due to the possibility of maintaining their anonymity. Therefore, in complex media environments such as the Internet, people can find alternative sources of information that help test the agenda climate and increase their exposure to public opinions. However, the overwhelming amount of information available online might activate shortcuts in the message perception and distort the representation of an object, such as the object in this study representing a tourism destination.
“Reality” - Politics - Economy - Science - Society Public perception of “reality” Public Agenda “Media reality” Media Agenda Agenda Building Agenda Cutting Selection by - Journalists - Political PR - Public Affairs
Public Agenda setting Direct
impressions, Discussions
Inter-media Agenda Setting
18 Chapter 2: Theoretical Background
2.3.2. Information Asymmetry and Signaling theory
In the decision-making process, having access to full information is one of the key issues in ensuring a decision. However, having access to full information about a product or service is an ideal, rather than a realistic, situation. In this regard, Akerlof (1970) introduced the concept of a “market of lemons”, describing a situation in which information about different objects is not equally distributed, and the supply or demand side lacks knowledge about the quality of products in relation to the price at which they are offered (Baggio and Baggio, 2011). However, it is not unusual for people to find solutions accidentally to the problem of information asymmetry. In the economic literature, signaling theory (Spence, 1973) postulates that some observable attributes of a person or organization can serve as a signal of quality in a context of information asymmetry. The notion of a signal of quality can be interpreted variously, but as in Connelly et al. (2011, p. 42), can be generally defined as the “unobservable ability of the signaler to fulfill the needs or demands of an outsider observing the signal”. This theory is particularly relevant in reputation studies as, for an organization, be associated with good or positive messages (signals) can be considered as indicators of good quality of the organization itself (Kreps and Wilson, 1982). Connelly et al. (2011), in their review of signaling theory’s components, identify the main elements at play (Figure 2.3): the signaler, the receiver, and the signal itself. The signaling timeline shows the possibility of feedback generation by the receiver.
Figure 2.3. Signaling Timeline (Connelly et al., 2011)
Therefore, this theory is particularly relevant to the online domain, as it raises the informational aspects of the messages communicated among different groups. Indeed, the signaling timeline proposed by Connelly et al. (2011) presents possible commonalities between the signaling elements and the online environment: the online domain has multiple signalers (i.e., DMO messages, past tourists), receivers (i.e., prospective travelers), and signals or competing signals (i.e., the online messages, e.g. a majority of people agreeing on the good offers at a destination). Adapting the signaling
Signaler (person, product, or firm) has underlying
quality Signal sent to receiver Receiver observes and interprets signal Feedback sent to signaler Signaling Environment Time 1 --- Time 2 --- Time 3 --- Time 4 ---
2.3 Media effects studies 19
components to the online domain regarding tourism destinations, it is possible to argue several implications for research on different online signals (messages, opinions) as elements that might generate a change in the prior beliefs of users about a tourism destination. As well, a destination wanting to communicate its selling points and attractiveness has to deal with an online market in which others actors co-create signals about the place. Therefore, studies focused on understanding how the elements of reputation are shaped online and how message cues are perceived by the public should take into account evidence from such research.
2.3.3. Dual process theory
The dual-process theory (Deutsch and Gerard, 1955; Chaiken and Trope, 1999) is a psychological theory designed to analyze the persuasiveness of received messages. This theory has been considered in this study because it represents a valid aid to the investigation of message cues when it comes to analysis of the perception/influence level of message reception. In analyzing online opinions presented in the form of text messages expressed online, a web user may be affected by several influencing message cues. In the dual-process theory, message cues in two main categories are seen to influence an individual in his/her reception of a message:
i) The informational influence category is related to the message-receiver’s judgment of the received information. Three major informational components characterize the message evaluation: the source, the content of the message, and the receiver. Focusing on the content of the message in the online context, Cheung et al. (2009), note that message argument strength and message sidedness (whether the message is positive or negative) are the main cues that might affect message reception.
ii) The normative influence category is related to the norms/expectations of others present in a group or community. This type of influence occurs when common evaluation by a group is present during communication. Focusing on the content of the message in the online context, Cheung et al. (2009) note that message consistency is one of the main cues that might affect message reception. The informational and normative influences have also been studied in the eWOM context, confirming their strong power in message reception (Cheung et al., 2009). Cheung et al. (2009) extend previous research by applying the dual-process theory in an online context; they found that both the information-based components and normative components significantly influenced perceived eWOM review credibility, meaning the extent to which an individual considers an online comment (e.g. a recommendation/review) to be true and/or worthy to be taken into account in future decisions.
The following sections introduce the applied domain (tourism destinations) and the main construct (reputation) addressed in this study.
20 Chapter 2: Theoretical Background