LA RESPUESTA DE POLÍTICA MONETARIA ANTE CHOQUES DE OFERTA

Multi-domain training is a collective term for training regimes that use complex tasks that demand several cognitive functions, such as leisure activities or video game training (Lustig et al., 2009). Several cognitive functions can be trained sequentially or simultaneously. Based on the assumption that transfer is mediated by the extent to which both training and transfer tasks depend on the same cognitive processes, brain structures, or both (Buschkuehl et al., 2012; Dahlin et al., 2008; Jonides, 2004; Kuwajima & Sawaguchi, 2010; Lustig et al., 2009; Taatgen, 2013), training a range of different cognitive functions theoretically has the potential for broader transfer. In fact, training breath increases the probability that one of the training domains overlaps with another cognitive function or task. In line with this, multi-domain training has shown far transfer to tasks that are quite different from the trained tasks (Lustig et al., 2009). In addition, one can assume that pure cognitive functions are rarely demanded in everyday life. Rather, everyday situations demand a combination of several cognitive functions and the ability to orchestrate them flexibly. Hence, multi-domain training that incorporates such demands is closer to everyday life situations and might be especially beneficial for older adults.

The training literature does not uniquely use the term multi-domain training for training regimes that target several cognitive, physical, and social abilities. Rather, several other terms are used interchangeably, such as multimodal training (Carlson et al., 2008), multi-component training, multi-tasking training (Anguera et al., 2013), or combined interventions. The present

thesis refers to multi-domain training when two or more distinct functions are tapped by the training. Multi-domain training is differentiated from dual-tasking training (Bherer, Kramer, & Peterson, 2008; Bherer et al., 2005) or task-switching training (Karbach & Kray, 2009) since dual-tasking and task-switching typically use training tasks that require the simultaneous administration of two tasks or switches between two tasks that tap into the same cognitive function (e.g., auditory and visual discrimination).

2 AIMS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The first aim of the present work is to investigate what kind of multi-domain training studies have been realized in the past. Therefore, the multi-domain training literature is reviewed to answer the question of how multi-domain training affects healthy older adults’ cognition (Chapter 4). Furthermore, the literature review aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of past multi-domain training approaches. Since multi-domain training is a vague term, different training programs will be divided into three categories: (1) Multi-domain training studies that introduce participants to novel leisure activities, (2) multi-domain training regimes that consist of a series of cognitive and health-related training tasks, and (3) video or computer game training.

The literature review reveals that multi-domain training affects cognition of healthy older adults broadly. However, the reviewed studies do not make conclusions about how the training relates to transfer. Having identified this research gap, the second aim of the present thesis is to address the question of how multi-domain training should be designed to investigate the relationship of multi-domain training and transfer (Chapter 5). To answer this question, Hotel Plastisse, an iPad-based training tool for older adults, is introduced.

Hotel Plastisse defines explicitly the cognitive functions that are trained in a simultaneous multi-domain training condition, including an inhibition, a visuomotor, and a spatial navigation task. This simultaneous multi-domain training can be compared to the training of each single task (single-domain training conditions). These functions were selected such that they can be clearly separated by different tasks. Furthermore, they refer to distinct cognitive processes that are affected by age-related cognitive decline and are associated with distinct neural networks (for inhibition see: Chambers, Garavan, & Bellgrove, 2009; for spatial navigation and spatial memory see: Klencklen et al., 2012; for visuomotor function see: Lohse, Wadden, Boyd, & Hodges, 2014). The Hotel Plastisse training tool is used to approach the third

aim (Chapter 6) of an empirical comparison of single-domain and multi-domain training with regard to near and far transfer. Therefore, an intensive cognitive training study with healthy older adults aged 64 to 75 years was conducted. Three sets of questions are addressed with this training study. The first set of questions consists of two questions related to training transfer: Does multi-domain training lead to far transfer due to its broader nature? In contrast, is single- domain training more effective in inducing near transfer since it trains one cognitive function more intensively than multi-domain training? The second set of questions addresses maintenance of performance on the transfer test battery at the six-month follow-up. Some researchers have found impressive long-term effects of training-related improvements (e.g., Rebok et al., 2014). However, it remains largely unknown which training conditions lead to maintained performance. Therefore, the following two questions are asked: Are training- related improvements stable over 6 months? How do single-domain and multi-domain training differ with respect to maintenance? The third question relates to inter-individual differences in intra-individual change. Therefore, a structural equation modeling approach with a latent difference score model allows to investigate how baseline performance relates to training- induced change in near and far transfer tasks. Only a few training studies have analyzed training-related improvements with structural equation modeling so far (Bellander et al., 2015; Lövdén, Brehmer, Li, & Lindenberger, 2012; Schmiedek, Lövdén, & Lindenberger, 2010; Zelinski, Peters, Hindin, Petway, & Kennison, 2014).

The fourth aim of this thesis is to investigate expertise-related neural plasticity in healthy old age. Up to now, only few studies investigated factors that are positively associated with preserved brain network functioning in healthy old age (e.g., Gard et al., 2014). Therefore, three groups with different training histories are compared with respect to their functional brain network characteristics (Chapter 7). One year after training, participants of the multi-domain training group, participants of the visuomotor function training group, and participants with no

training history (control group) underwent high-density electroencephalographic (EEG) measurement to compare expertise-related functional connectivity and graph-theoretical measures during performance on a multi-domain training task. The research question of this study is to what extent are different expertise levels reflected in differences in functional brain network characteristics.

~ 6 months

3 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

The empirical part consisting of the cognitive training study (Chapter 6) and the EEG measurement (Chapter 7) of the present thesis is embedded in a longitudinal study.