RESULTADO PRESUPUESTARIO-ECONÓMICO-FINANCIERO 2015

Stress and burnout may be alleviated by psychological and social resources. Steptoe (1991) maintains that coping responses affect the impact of stress on psychological and physiological well-being. Thus the way in which people currently cope with stress and potential burnout can affect the way in which they view a situation, the challenges involved and their perception of the stressors. Coping strategies range from positive engagement with the problem and the associated emotions to avoidance, disengagement or withdrawal (Tobin, Holroyd, Reynolds and Wigal, 1989). According to Griffith et al. (1999), little research has been done on psychological coping and the perception of stress among teachers. Furthermore, the reliability and validity of the research findings in the field tend to be criticized because investigators often do not use standardized stress inventories (Griffith et al., 1999).

According to Maslach et al. (1981), interventions should address the three components of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal

accomplishment. Furthermore, Maslach et al. (1981) state that the focus of support and coping strategies should be on changing the job situation rather than the more traditional focus of trying to change the person by making it the individual’s responsibility to lower their stress levels. Thus Maslach et al. (1981) view burnout as a result of stressors which emanate from the social environment in which the individual works. This view supports Schonfield (2001) who states that burnout is a consequence of the individual’s environment and not a result of a deficiency in the individual. Most preventative measures attempt to change the individual and rely on the assumption that the source of burnout lies within the person and not the working environment. Maslach et al. (1997) state that many psychiatrists, clinical psychologists and social workers support this perspective and view burnout as a psychiatric disorder that is amenable to individual treatment approaches. The organisation, therefore, abdicates

responsibility. However, Hamberger and Stone (1983), Lowenstein (1991) and Mikkelsen, Ogaard and Lovrich (2000) disagree with Maslach et al. (1981) and Schonfield’s (2001) views, maintaining that it actually is the individual’s responsibility to develop coping skills. These coping skills include reducing isolation by seeking out interactions with others, learning how to change one’s reactions to stressful situations so as to restore perspective and balance, creating goals to work towards in order to change negative perceptions of one’s job, clarifying sources of frustration and stress and learning how to manage time and resolve conflicts.

Other researchers believe that creating a more engaging workplace which provides employees with a realistic workload, a degree of control over their work, acceptable working conditions, fair treatment, the resources necessary to do their jobs, a strong social support network and market-related salaries is a better way of developing strategies to cope with burnout

(Greenblatt, 2002; Maslach et al., 1981, Maslach et al., 1997). Organisational interventions may include employee counselling programmes, wellness programmes30 which address physical and emotional issues, job rotation to enhance skills and reduce boredom, and interpersonal skills training (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998). Olivier et al. (2003) state that the management of schools and the various education departments in South Africa must acknowledge that the emotional and physical health of teachers is vital for effective job functioning and thus

provision should be made for balance in their work programme and for support in coping with stress.

Cowie (2011) maintains that there are three important issues which are often overlooked at language schools in particular and these are the importance of collaboration, allowing teachers to express their emotions and the importance of encouraging an atmosphere of emotional warmth, both inside and outside the classrooms. Coombe (2008) agrees stating that language schools have a responsibility to provide TESOL teachers with adequate resources and clear job descriptions and expectations so as to reduce role conflict and ambiguity, and create clear lines of communication between teachers and administrators. Hepburn and Brown (2001) and Schwab (2001) maintain that teachers’ who are satisfied with decisions and the degree of support provided by school administrators have a more positive attitude towards teaching. The researchers suggest that language schools experiment with interventions aimed at improving teachers’ collegial relationships within the school so as to promote social connections and align teachers’ goals and values closer to their occupational expectations.

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Morrison and MacKinnon (2008:28) state that wellness programmes are only effective if employees are motivated to participate. Motivation may be stimulated by offering incentives, ensuring clear communication about the benefits of the programme, ensuring confidentiality, offering long-term programmes, and hosting the programme on the employers’ time.

Language schools, therefore, need to provide a supportive working environment which is conducive to communication, cooperation and collaboration. Teacher collaboration and the consequent creation of a professional learning community have been linked to increased satisfaction in teaching. This supports Nias (1989) who maintains that interpersonal

relationships should be at the centre of every aspect of school life. Woods and Weasmer (2004) advocate the benefits of ‘collegial investment’ while the creation of a stronger sense of

teaching efficacy is supported by Ashton and Webb (1986) and Vescio, Ross and Adams (2008). Troman and Woods (2000) maintain that improved work relationships lower stress levels and provide teachers with an enhanced capacity for coping with change. This supports Little (1990) and Zembylas and Barker (2007). Linville and Belt (1982) state that teacher training courses should include information about the nature of stress and burnout, what constitutes stressful classroom situations, the results of prolonged stress and suggestions on how to cope with stress and burnout. Linville et al. (1982) believe that this would better prepare teachers for stressful situations. This supports Olivier et al. (2003) who state that stress management should form part of the curriculum for potential teachers. Griffith et al. (1999) also maintain that training teachers to analyse challenging situations before reacting to them may reduce

maladaptive coping responses which could lead to the prevention of accumulated stressors in teachers’ work environments.

Carver, Scheier and Weintraub (1989) identify a number of coping strategies used by teachers to manage stress. These include a positive reinterpretation of the teaching role, acceptance of the limitations of the teaching role and seeking support from colleagues and supervisors. This is supported by Starnaman et al. (1992) who report that supportive supervisors reduce stress among teachers and Greenglass et al. (1997) who state that collegial support is effective in reducing stress and burnout. Carver et al. (1989) also mention that some teachers are unable to cope with stress which can lead to behavioral and mental disengagement from the teaching role and in some cases, the use of alcohol and drugs in order to cope with stress. Cooper and Kelly (1993) found that teachers who used palliative coping strategies such as drinking alcohol, smoking and taking medication reported greater stress arising from work overload and

interpersonal relationships. This supports Olivier et al. (2003) who maintain that teachers who lack coping mechanisms tend to turn to alcohol and drugs to alleviate stress. Furthermore, McCormick (1997) maintains that the perception of higher stress is associated with such immature defensive coping responses.

Suls and Fletcher (1985) mention cognitive and behavioural disengagement as negative coping strategies that are implemented directly, without the help of others and with immediate consequences. Suls et al. (1985) maintain that disengagement can be beneficial in the short- term, however, relying on this strategy for a long period of time may lead to an overload of

work and disrupt classes and student learning. Chan and Hui (1995), in a survey study of 415 Chinese secondary school teachers, found that this kind of avoidance behaviour correlated significantly with high levels of burnout which may be detrimental to the individual’s health. Griffith et al. (1999) found that teachers reporting high job strain had elevated blood pressure and heart rate in the evenings which suggested an inability to unwind after work. Brown et al. (1992) state that excessive stress in the teaching profession can result in increased smoking and above average drinking, an increased incidence of heart disease, increased absenteeism, low resistance to infection and fatigue and early retirements.

Grasse (1982) suggests that teachers use a range of strategies to cope with stress such as reviving interest in their subject by varying materials and teaching techniques, exchanging and sharing information with colleagues, setting realistic goals for their classes to achieve, getting to know their students as individuals, facing problems in a realistic manner and seeking viable solutions to classroom problems. Coombe (2008) advises stressed teachers to establish positive working relationships with their students, colleagues and administrators, to try and focus on teaching rather than becoming overwhelmed by paperwork, and to create a balance between work and leisure time (Grosch and Olsen, 1995; MacBride, 1983; Maslach, 1982). In addition, Coombe (2008) suggests that teachers become more involved in the profession through conference attendance, mentoring, publishing and research. This supports Olivier et al. (2003) who advocate teachers’ taking responsibility for their own empowerment.

In Loh’s (1995) study of secondary school TESOL teachers in Hong Kong, she discovered that the teachers used various ‘soft’ methods to cope with stress including talking to friends, listening to music, shopping, reading books and magazines and watching television and movies. Loh states that most of the teachers surveyed were women which may account for the results (ninety-four women and nineteen men). Loh (1995) also found that seeking counselling for stress was the least popular suggestion by far. This may be due to the stigma associated with admitting that one is stressed as others often view it as a sign of weakness and an inability to do the job. Alternatively it may support Taylor et al. (2004) who suggest that Asian teachers are

discouraged from seeking assistance with stress and burnout in the interests of maintaining group harmony. Patrick (1984a and 1984b) reports that people who experience burnout are often seen as complainers who will not take responsibility for their actions. This creates the impression that burnout is as a result of a flaw or weakness in the individual. Employees may thus try to hide any signs of burnout, deny problems and avoid seeking help.

Hall, Woodhouse and Wooster (1988) found evidence that experiential, in-service courses in human relations enable teachers to change their behaviours in ways that reduce stress. Hall et al. (1988) surveyed fifty-six British teachers and found that experiential learning and working

together in small groups played an important part in teacher training and reducing stress. Stress management should, therefore, be approached in a systematic way by the school and involve identifying stressors, planning and implementing stress management policies and providing plenty of opportunities to discuss shared experiences based on successful coping strategies. According to Brown et al. (1992), strategies which may be included in such in-service training include assertiveness techniques, communication skills, effective time management, learning how to delegate, relaxation techniques and the development of support networks.

Stein and Cutler (2002) recommend teaching individuals how to adjust their nutrition and sleeping patterns, and training teachers in anger management, biofeedback, positive social skills and self-talk strategies. It should be noted that Keable (1996) maintains that coping involves learning both mental and physical skills. Keable (1996) suggests that it is not sufficient to just teach positive thinking and relaxation techniques as individuals need time to practice applying these techniques to real-life situations. Thus teachers need to be educated about the signs and symptoms of stress and burnout so that they will know when to apply the techniques they have learned.

Troman and Woods (2000) conducted qualitative research using life history interviews with a sample of British urban and rural school teachers who had been diagnosed with anxiety, depression or stress-related illnesses but who had chosen to remain in the profession. Troman et al. (2000) felt that the sample may be regarded as ‘critical cases’ in that they highlighted issues common to all teachers rather than unique to themselves. Troman et al. (2000) explored the perceptions of the teachers with a focus on how they had remained in the profession by making adaptations to their roles. These adaptations included retreatism which involves submitting to the role changes, withdrawing to the classroom and working in isolation. Retreatism is a source of stress according to Crookes (1997) and Markham (1999). Other

adaptations included downshifting which involves reducing one’s workload, responsibilities and status and self-actualization which can involve re-routeing one’s career through finding new opportunities or relocating to a different school which is more in line with one’s values. Some of the teachers interviewed stated that they had coped with stress and gained greater self- fulfillment by downshifting which involved reducing their working hours and increasing their commitment to activities outside the school such as playing sport, involvement in a religious or social club, a hobby and doing voluntary work. However, several of the teachers mentioned that this required a financial sacrifice that not all teachers were in a position to make. Austin, Shah and Muncer (2005) investigated ways of coping with stress among thirty-eight American and British secondary school teachers using the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ). The five most popular ways of coping were planning and active problem solving,

exercising self-control, seeking social support, confronting the problem and distancing oneself from the stressful situation. The least popular method of coping was escape-avoidance. Austin et al. (2005) discovered that the teachers with the highest stress levels were the most likely to use negative coping strategies such as escape-avoidance as it allowed the individual teacher to decrease involvement and ultimately withdraw from the situation. Participants also mentioned a number of activities which helped them to alleviate work stress including being active in a social club, spending time alone, exercising31, listening to music and talking to friends.

Bullough and Baughman (1997), in a ten-year longitudinal case study of an American teacher’s development, found that self-regulatory knowledge plays a critical role in emotion regulation. This knowledge refers to how experts know themselves and how they process the knowledge they own. Thus teachers need to be self-reflective in monitoring their own stress levels and emotions when they are in the classroom. Olivier et al. (2003) suggest keeping a daily teaching journal as a record of classroom experiences and as a means of reflecting on one’s emotions. Gross (2002) suggests regulating emotion through reappraisal rather than suppression. Reappraisal involves changing one’s thinking about a situation so as to decrease its emotional impact whereas suppression involves inhibiting one’s emotions. According to Chang (2009), teachers are likely to neglect or suppress their emotions. Thus suppressing, faking or hiding one’s emotions can lead to greater overall burnout.

Chang (2009) maintains that teachers should accurately label their emotional experiences, reflect on their emotions and identify ineffective patterns of judgment of classroom events. Liljestrom, Roulston, and deMarrais (2007) state that school management must acknowledge that teaching is an emotional practice and a form of emotional labour. Teachers’ emotions are inseparable from their selves, identities and relationships with others, emotions are shaped by the experience of power and powerlessness and emotions can vary with culture and context. Teachers, therefore, should be encouraged to reflect on and talk about their emotions to their supervisors and colleagues rather than suppress them.

Khan (2008) maintains that professional development constitutes a viable coping strategy for stress as it encourages professional interactions with colleagues which can lead to personal growth, it develops a critical stance towards professional work and it leads to reflective attitudes and a new self-understanding. However, Kahn (2008) cautions that professional development is a long-term strategy which requires hard work and commitment. It is important to note that if there is no appropriate support from management and colleagues, unsuccessful attempts at professional development may lead to fatigue and withdrawal. Professional

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The teachers with the lowest stress levels used both competitive and non-competitive exercise more often than those with higher stress levels. Teachers with the highest stress levels used exercise significantly less.

development includes a variety of activities which can enhance career growth such as in-service training which can be part of weekly staff meetings, further education, reading books and journal articles to stay up-to-date with the field, joining international professional associations such as The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) or Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) and attending and delivering papers at professional conferences. Furthermore, participating in regular workshops32 can be used as a means of raising awareness about current issues, discussing new ideas, evaluating textbooks and creating new materials.

Cowie (2011) researched the emotions that TESOL teachers in Japan felt about their students, colleagues and work. He found that participants who experienced a lack of collegiality and organisational support often turned to the wider TESOL community for collaborative growth and development opportunities. The teachers used professional networks as a way of overcoming vulnerability and a lack of career structure. This included joining professional organisations, email discussion lists and researching joint academic projects. Cowie (2011: 240) states that “Teachers, especially those in very isolated contexts, need to meet others in order to make meaning about what it is they do.” One teacher commented that, “Just talking to others who have similar interests and are also inquisitive about teaching and learning, is cathartic and helps you get things out of your system” (Cowie, 2011:238).

MacBride (1983); Riordan and Saltzer (1992) and Suran and Sheridan (1985) maintain that burnt-out individuals should not wait for the organisation to step in and solve their problems but need to embark on rigorous self-analysis such as how one’s desire for recognition leads to overwork or how early family experiences have shaped unconscious expectations of a job. Riordan et al. (1992) believe that self-analysis will assist the individual in adjusting unrealistic expectations, clarify spiritual and philosophical values and enable teachers to determine whether their personal ideals match their job situation. Yip (2006), however, cautions that when an individual has a heavy workload and is already feeling burnt-out, self-reflection may in reality be more of an additional burden than a help. MacBride (1983) and Clandfield (2010) advocate physical solutions to stress including healthier living habits, improving nutrition and fitness levels, and embarking on relaxation programmes such as meditation and yoga. Thus becoming involved in outside interests and hobbies all correlate with lower levels of burnout. Seidman and Zager (1991) investigated positive coping approaches used by 365 American secondary school teachers and found that competitive and low-level physical exercise reduced

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Crookes (1990) recommends a focus on developing local workshops organised and presented by the TESOL teachers concerned rather than a visiting ‘expert’ from a far-off high-prestige organisation. Crookes (1990) believes that teachers’ self- confidence will not develop if they are treated as if they are ignorant and need to be told what to do by more highly skilled and educated individuals.

stress levels which supports Austin et al. (2005) who found exercise to be a positive coping strategy. Other researchers recommend meditation which is supported by Anderson, Levinson, Barker and Kiewra (1999) who, after a five-week standardised meditation programme with ninety-one American secondary school teachers, discovered that meditation, two to five times a week, resulted in a significant decrease in teacher stress. Donatelle and Hawkins (1989) state,