task behaviour among children, r= (298) = .496, p<.05 thus, the hypothesis is rejected. The reason could be aligned to the fact that the reasons students fail to attend school are multifaceted and complex. Causes could occur at the individual, family, school and community levels. For example, students may skip school because of school phobia, off-task behaviour, learning disabilities or difficulty getting along with other students or teachers. Families may have chaotic living situations or parents may have poor parenting skills that affect their ability to monitor and encourage their child‘s school attendance and
Knowledge for Global Development
108 commitment to their school task. Likewise, school factors affecting truancy rates include problems with bullying and teaching methods perceived as boring by students. This finding has thus demonstrated that self-concept, anxiety and truancy have significant effect on children with off-task behaviour. It therefore implies that conscious efforts should be made by school counsellors to initiate intervention programmes that would enhance students‘ positive adjustment to teaching and learning experience in school.
Implication of the findings
Children expressing off-task behaviour often have problems that go far beyond those experienced in reading, writing, mathematics, memory, or organization. For many, strong feelings of frustration, anger, sadness, or shame can lead to psychological difficulties such as anxiety, depression, or low self-esteem, as well as behavioural problems such as substance abuse or juvenile delinquency. Their academic struggles and failures are often met with disapproval by teachers, peers, and parents. Such disapproval can take the form of negative labelling of a child as "slow," "lazy," or "dumb." Rather than developing a sense of pride in their accomplishments, children expressing off-task behaviour may end up in a quagmire of frustration and shame. Such feelings only serve to erode the development of a positive self-concept. In fact, as a result of constant struggle and failure, a negative self-image may develop even when others offer support and encouragement.
Therefore, the result of the study makes it imperative for us to initiate a measure that will enable us review the factors related to an increased risk of learning among children with off-task behaviour as to aid in the development of more effective preventive programmes.
CONCLUSION
The findings of this study have enabled us to have an insight of the situation experienced by children with off-task behaviour in school. Thus, it is imperative that parents, special educationist, counsellors, psychologists, school administrators and significant others understand the developmental trend of children with off-task behaviour in school as to be able to appreciate their challenges, needs, expectations in order to give them sense of belonging and relate with them unconditionally.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The family, society and significant others should take time to appreciate and understand the developmental task of children with off-task behaviour so as to device appropriate measure on how best to understand, relate, maintain and sustain pleasant social relationship with them as to facilitate permissible environment where they can express themselves freely.
Knowledge for Global Development
109 Children with learning disabilities should be helped to overcome their challenges through appropriate intervention programmes.
Parents should ensure they develop the right attitude and interest in the education of their children with off-task behaviour as to give them the necessary support to overcome their academic challenge.
REFERENCES
Boyle, C.A., Decoufle, P. & Yeargin-Allsopp, M., (1994): Prevalence and health impact of developmental disabilities in US children. Pediatrics. 9, 399-403. Developmental Disabilities Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
Brock, S.E.(1998, February). Helping the student with ADHD in the classroom Strategies for teachers. Communiqué, 26 (5), 18-20.
Carnine, D.W. (1976). Effects of two teacher presentation rates on off-task behavior, answering correctly, and participation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 199-206.
Dekker, M.C, & Koot H.M. (2003): DSM-IV disorders in children with borderline to moderate intellectual disability I: Prevalence and impact. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry; 42: 915-22.
DuPaul, G.J., & Ervin, R.A. (1996). Functional assessment of behaviors related to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Linking assessment to intervention design. Behavior Therapy, 27, 601-622.
Eaude, T. (1999): Learning Difficulties: Dyslexia, Bullying and Other Issues, London: Letts Educational.
Elbaum, B., & Vaughn, S. (2001): School-based interventions to enhance the self- concept of students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. The
Elementary School Journal, 101, 303-329.
Ford, A. D., Olmi, D. J., Edwards, R. P., & Tingstrom, D. H. (2001). The sequential introduction of compliance training components with elementary-aged children in general education classroom settings. School Psychology Quarterly, 16, 142-157. Gerald, .O. (2012): Children and adolescents with learning disabilities: its impact on school, family and society:http://www.codewit.com/family- advice/parenting-relationships/1707- children-and-adolescents-with-learning- disabilities-its-impact-on-school-family-and- society: Accessed online on 28/05/2012.
Knowledge for Global Development
110 Gettinger, M. (1988). Methods of proactive classroom management. School Psychology Review, 17, 227-242.
Gettinger, M., & Seibert, J.K. (2002). Best practices in increasing academic learning time. In A. Thomas (Ed.), Best practices in school psychology IV: Volume I (4th ed., pp. 773-787). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Heward, W.L. (1994). Three 'low-tech' strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner III, D.M. Sainato, J.O. Cooper, T.E. Heron, W.L. Heward, J. Eshleman, & T.A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 283-320). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Martens, B.K. & Kelly, S.Q. (1993).A behavioral analysis of effective teaching. School Psychology Quarterly, 8, 10-26.
Martens, B.K., & Meller, P.J. (1990).The application of behavioral principles to educational settings. In T.B. Gutkin & C.R. Reynolds (Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 612-634). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Powell, S., & Nelson, B. (1997). Effects of choosing academic assignments on a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 181-183.
U.S. Department of Education (2004). Teaching children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Instructional strategies and practices. Retrieved August 20th, 2005, from http://www.ed.gov/teachers/needs/speced/adhd/adhd- resource-pt2.doc