It is clear that in practice the three paradigms are not historically subsequent nor they are alter-natives. The fi rst represented the linear tradition of “knowledge before planning”. The second highlighted the political dimension of planning but tended to separate procedural knowledge from substantive and physical planning problems. This defi ciency was addressed by project-oriented approaches which, in some cases, developed a pragmatic understanding of planning and implementation processes. In the current phase of crisis of the planning discipline, new perspec-tives can derive from a mutual legitimization of the aforementioned principles. Cultivating their synergetic relationships seems now more important than technically developing each of these approaches alone. In our view a new frontier for planning research should focus on interpreta-tive and interacinterpreta-tive knowledge development through a design-oriented inquiry. Renowned architects and planners have led signifi cant research along these perspectives. Unfortunately these experiments are unlikely to develop well in cultural traditions which separate architectural from planning education and practice.
References
Allmendinger, P., and Haughton, G. (2009). Critical refl ection on spatial planning. Environment and Planning A , 41: 2544–2549.
Astengo, G. (1958). Il piano regolatore di Assisi e i piani particolareggiati. Urbanistica , 24–25: 9–124.
Astengo, G. (1966). Urbanistica. In Enciclopedia universale dell’arte , vol. 14. Venice: Sansoni, 541–642.
Astengo, G. (1970). Studi per il piano regolatore di Bergamo. Rome: Edizione a cura della Rivista Urbanistica.
Barrett, S., and Fudge, C. Eds. (1981). Policy and action: essays on the implementation of public policy . London:
Methuen.
Ben-Joseph, E. (2005). The code of the city: standards and the hidden language of place making . Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Bloor, D. (1976). Knowledge and social imaginary. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bracken, I. (1981). Urban planning methods: research and policy analysis. London: Methuen.
Brown, H. I. (1977). Perception, theory and commitment: the new philosophy of science. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Carmona, M., Heath, T., Oc, T., and Tiesdell, S. (2003). Public places urban spaces: the dimensions of urban design . Amsterdam: Architectural Press.
Chapin, F. S. (1965). Urban land use planning. New York: Harper & Row.
Cohen, M., March, J. G., and Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of decision-making. Administrative Science Quarterly , 17: 1–25.
Crosta, P. L. (1995). La politica del piano . Milan: Angeli.
Crosta, P. L. (1998). Politiche: quale conoscenza per l’azione territoriale . Milan: Angeli.
De Carlo, G. (1964). Questioni di architettura e di urbanistica . Urbino: Argalia.
De Carlo, G. (1966). Urbino . Padova: Marsilio.
De Carlo, G. (1992). Gli spiriti dell’architettura . Rome: Editori Riuniti.
Di Biagi, P., and Gabellini, P. (1990). Il nuovo piano regolatore di Siena. Urbanistica , 99: 31–88.
Fainstein, S., and Fainstein, N. (1979). New debates in urban planning: the impact of Marxist theory in the United States. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research , 3: 381–403.
Faludi, A. (1973a). Planning theory. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Faludi, A. (1973b). A reader in planning theory . Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Pier Carlo Palermo and Davide Ponzini
Flyvbjerg, B. (1992). Aristotle, Foucault and progressive phronesis: outline for an applied ethics for sustain-able development. Planning Theory , 7–8: 65–83.
Flyvbjerg, B. (2004). Phronetic planning research: theoretical and methodological refl ections. Planning The-ory and Practice , 5: 283–306.
Foerster, H. von (1981). Observing systems . Seaside: Intersystems.
Forester, J. (1999). The deliberative practitioner: encouraging participatory planning processes . London: MIT Press.
Forester, J. (2009). Dealing with differences: dramas of mediating public disputes. New York: Oxford University Press.
Friedmann, J. (1973). Retracking America: a theory of transactive planning . New York: Doubleday Anchor.
Friedmann, J. (1987). Planning in the public domain: from knowledge to action . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-versity Press.
Grabow, S., and Heskin, A. (1973). Foundations for a radical concept of planning. Journal of the American Institute of Planners , 39: 106–114.
Gregotti, V. (1966). Il territorio dell’architettura . Milan: Feltrinelli.
Gregotti, V. (1986). Questioni di architettura . Turin: Einaudi.
Gregotti, V. (2004). L’architettura del realismo critico . Rome-Bari: Laterza.
Habermas, J. (1981). Theorie des kommunicativen handelns . Volume 1, Handlungsrationalität und gesellsschaftliche rationalisierung. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag.
Harvey, D. (1985). On planning the ideology of planning. In D. Harvey (Ed.), The urbanization of capital:
studies in the history and theory of capitalist urbanization (pp. 165–184). Oxford: Blackwell.
Healey, P. (1997). Collaborative planning: shaping places in fragmented societies. London: Macmillan.
Healey, P. (2004). The treatment of space and place in the new strategic spatial planning in Europe. Interna-tional Journal of Urban and Regional Research , 28(1): 45–67.
Healey, P. (2010). Making better places: the planning project in the Twenty-First Century . Houndmills, UK: Pal-grave Macmillan.
Innes, J. (1995). Planning theory’s emerging paradigm: communicative action and interactive practice. Jour-nal of Planning Education and Research , 14(3): 183–190.
Krueckeberg, D. A., and Silvers, A. L. (1974). Urban planning analysis: methods and models . New York: Wiley.
Lanzara, G. F. (1985). La progettazione come indagine: modelli cognitivi e strategie d’azione. Rassegna itali-ana di sociologia , 26(3): 335–367.
Lanzara, G. F. (1993). Capacità negative: competenza progettuale e modelli di intervento nelle organizzazioni. Bolo-gna: il Mulino.
Lindblom, C. E. (1990). Inquiry and change: the troubled attempt to understand and shape society. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Lindblom, C. E., and Cohen, D. K. (1979). Usable knowledge: social science and social problem solving . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
March, J. (1988). Decisions and organizations . London: Blackwell.
Nagel, T. (1986). The view from nowhere. London: Oxford University Press.
Oosterlynck, S., van den Broeck, J., Albrechts, L., Moulaert, F., and Verhetsel, A. Eds. (2011). Strategic spatial projects: catalysts for change . London: Routledge.
Palermo, P.C. (1992). Interpretazioni dell’analisi urbanistica. Milan: Angeli.
Palermo, P.C. (2006). Innovation in planning: Italian experiences . Barcelona: Actar.
Palermo, P.C., and Ponzini, D. (2010). Spatial planning and urban development: critical perspectives . New York:
Springer Verlag.
Palermo, P.C., and Ponzini D. (2012). At the crossroads between urban planning and urban design: critical lessons from three Italian case studies. Planning Theory & Practice , 13(3): 445–460.
Perloff, H. S. (1957). Education for planning: city, state and regional. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Popper, K. R. (1963). Conjectures and refutations: the growth of scientifi c knowledge. London: Routledge &
Kegan.
Popper, K. R. (1972). Objective knowledge: an evolutionary approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Popper, K. R. (1976). The myth of the framework. In E. Freeman (Ed.), The abdication of philosophy: philoso-phy and the public good. Essays in Honour of P.A. Schilpp. (pp. 23–48). La Salle, IL: Open Court.
Punter, J., and Carmona, M. (1997). The design dimension of planning: theory, policy and best practice . London:
Spon.
Quade, E. S., and Miser, H. J. (1985). Handbook of systems analysis: overview of uses, procedures, applications, and practices . New York: North Holland.
Quaroni, L. (1967). La Torre di Babele . Padova: Marsilio.
Quaroni, L. (1981). La città fi sica . Rome-Bari: Laterza.
Rodwin, L. (1981). Cities and city planning . New York: Plenum Press.
Salet, W., and Faludi, A. Eds. (2000). The revival of strategic spatial planning . Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Sandercock, L. (1998). Towards cosmopolis: planning for multicultural cities . London: Wiley.
Schön, D. (1983). The refl ective practitioner: how professionals think in action . New York: Basic Books.
Schön, D., and Rein, M. (1994). Frame refl ection: toward the resolution of intractable policy controversies. New York: Basic Books.
Secchi, B. (1989). Un progetto per l’urbanistica. Turin: Einaudi.
Secchi, B. (1991). Teoria del Piano Urbanistico e ricerca sociale: un programma di ricerca. Archivio di Studi Urbani e Regionali , 42: 41–64.
Secchi, B. (2010). A new urban question. Territorio , 53: 8–18.
Secchi, B., and Viganò, P. (1998). Un programma per l’urbanistica. Urbanistica , 111: 64–76.
Secchi, B., and Viganò, P. (2009). Antwerp: territory of a new modernity . Amsterdam: SUN.
Secchi, B., and Viganò, P. (2011). La ville poreuse: un projet pour le Grand Paris et la métropole de l’après-Kyoto . Geneva: Metis Presses.
Susskind, L. E., and Cruikshank, J. (1987). Breaking the impasse: consensual approaches to resolving public disputes.
New York: Basic Books.
Tiesdell, S., and Adams, D. Eds. (2011). Urban design in the real estate development process . Oxford: Blackwell.
Van den Broek, J. (2011). Spatial design as a strategy for a qualitative socio-spatial transformation. In S. Oosterlynck et al. (Eds.), Strategic spatial projects: catalysts for change . London: Routledge, 87–96.
Viganò P. (2010). I territori dell’urbanistica: il progetto come produttore di conoscenza . Rome: Offi cina.
VVAA (2009). Le grand Pari(s): consultation internationale sur l’avenir de la metropole parisienne. Paris: AMC Le Moniteur Architecture.
Wildavsky, A. (1973). If planning is everything, maybe it’s nothing. Policy Sciences , 4(2): 127–153.
Wildavsky, A. (1979). Speaking truth to the power: the art and craft of policy analysis. New York: Little, Brown.