6.3 Resultados a nivel de fuentes cerebrales
6.3.2 Resultados del análisis en el dominio temporal
Australia is party to a number of international agreements that specifically deal with oceans and marine issues in neighbouring regions. The bilateral and multilateral agreements provide region-specific instruments for the management of marine and coastal resources for both Australia and its neighbours. Instruments for regional cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region demonstrate that boundaries are artificial and that the activities beyond these boundaries are important and are still considered part of Australia’s maritime responsibilities. Therefore, decisions affecting Australia’s surrounding regions have had an enormous impact on oceans policy development.
The Asian region is Australia’s largest export market and Australia will always have a vested interest in its closest continental neighbour. The marine and coastal
management practices in neighbouring states are also closely monitored by Australia for trade concerns as well as environmental effects. The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)86 has provided an arena for its Asian members to develop
measures specific to the region on various issues including the conservation of marine resources.
The Asian region’s management of marine and resources is particularly important economically and environmentally as the area boasts many states that are offshore oil and mineral producers. Moreover, many of the region’s states depend economically and socially on their fishing industries. ‘Sustainable development’ is a widely interpreted term in the Asian region due to the strong economical ties to ocean resources.
The Marine Resource Conservation Working Group (MRC) is comprised of
representatives from each APEC economy with ocean related responsibilities. It was established in 1990 to ensure that socio-economic and environmental considerations are taken into account in the protection of marine resources.87 The aim of the Group
is to implement the APEC Action Plan for Sustainability of the Marine Environment
which was endorsed in June 1997. During a meeting of APEC-MRC in May 2001, three key objectives were identified for the implementation of the Action Plan, first, to use integrated approaches to coastal management; second, the prevention,
reduction and control of marine pollution; and third, sustainable management of marine resources.88
Australia’s involvement in MRC has been integral to oceans policy development, in particular with the fulfilment of regional objectives, and the fifteenth meeting was
86 APEC’s work focuses on the whole Pacific region, as well as Asia, and has several member states
from North and South America.
87 APEC, “Working Groups and Expert Groups –MRC”,
http://www.apecsec.org.sg/workgroup/marine_upd.html, date cited: 1 August, 2002, Date last modified, 16 May, 2002.
held in Canberra in June 2002. The MRC has played a pivotal role in integrated ocean and coastal programming and its communiqué for its Canberra workshop in June 2002 suggested that further developments should be referred to an informal group on ocean policy to strengthen MRC policy role in ocean and coastal matters.89
The MRC Group contributes its findings each year to the World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Australia is also involved with ocean and marine issues in the South Pacific region. The relationship between Australia and the South Pacific nations has resulted in the increased protection and integrated management of marine resources. The South Pacific nations are all islands and their social and economic interests lie in coastal and marine activities. The ocean territory makes up 98 per cent of the region’s total area with the land totalling an area of only 550,000 kilometres squared.90 The main
fishing activities in the area are undertaken by distant water fishing nations. The Pacific nations are concerned with the preservation of the marine environment and in particular concerns about “land based pollution, hazardous wastes disposal and harmful seabed activities.”91
Australia’s interests in the area include being a member of the South Pacific Forum, the central regional agency that supports the activities in the region, and which
88 APEC, “Working Groups and Expert Groups –MRC”,
http://www.apecsec.org.sg/workgroup/marine_upd.html, date cited: 24 June 2003, Date last modified, May, 2003.
89 Ibid.
90 Tutangata, T. and Power, M. “The regional scale of ocean governance regional cooperation in the
contributes substantial aid and assists in defence cooperation.92 Australia has played
a large role in the implementation of Agenda 21 in the South Pacific region and has adopted a number of approaches to integrate its expertise on ocean and marine management with the needs of the region.93 The South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP) is a multilateral arrangement that is made up of key states that are involved with the South Pacific region and is the South Pacific component of the UNEP Regional Seas Program. Australia contributes 20 per cent of the core funding to the programme (which in 2001 was A$1.6 million).94
SPREP has many programs in the area of marine and coastal environment, including an environmental impact assessment program and a marine pollution assessment program aimed,
inter alia, to develop monitoring capabilities throughout the region and identify marine pollution types and sources.95
Australia is also a party to the Convention for the Protection of the National Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region. The Convention and its protocols provide the framework for the protection, management and development of the marine environment and its resources in the South Pacific region and the eastern part of Australia.96 Together SPREP and the Convention provide a body of rules that
91 Bergin, A. and Michaelis, B. “Australia and the South Pacific: implementing the UNCED oceans
agenda”, Marine Policy 20, no.1, 1995: 47.
92 Australia is also involved in a number of bilateral agreements in the region that include the Torres
Strait Environmental Management Committee and the Australia-France Arrangement for Cooperation in Marine Science and Technology.
93 Bergin, A. and Michaelis, B. “Australia and the South Pacific: implementing the UNCED oceans
agenda”, 49.
94 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “SPREP”,
http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/regional_orgs/sprep.html, date cited: 24 June 2003. Also see SPREP, http://www.sprep.org.we.
95 Bergin, A. and Michaelis, B. “Australia and the South Pacific: implementing the UNCED oceans
agenda”, 49.
are integral to Australia and the South Pacific region and are recognised in
Australia’s Oceans Policy.
In addition, Australia is a member of the Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA), which is the main fisheries body in the South Pacific region, and a member of the Forum Fisheries Committee that reports to the South Pacific Forum. Australia is supportive of the Pacific states in these forums, the FFA Convention and their stance on high seas fishing including highly migratory species such as tuna. The South Pacific states recognise that the irresponsible fishing practices such as driftnet fishing have the potential to negatively impact their fisheries. As a consequence, Australia and the island states instigated the Wellington Convention which “prohibits nationals and vessels of signatories to the Convention from engaging in driftnet activities in the Convention area.”97 This area includes the EEZs of the South Pacific countries
and adjacent high seas.
The Western and Central Pacific (WCP) is the largest and most productive tuna fishery in the world.98 The FFA Convention recognised that the Pacific islands alone
could not adequately conserve and manage their highly migratory tuna stocks. As a consequence, in 1994 the first session of a Multilateral High Level Conference (MHLC) was initiated by FFA members to address this concern and it was viewed as
97 Ibid., 53. Australia ratified the Convention on 6 July 1992. Also see Bergin, A., Haward, M.,
Russell, D. and Weir, R. “Marine living resources”, in Kriwoken, L., Haward, M.,
VanderZwaag, D. and Davis, B. eds., Oceans Law and Policy in the Post-UNCED Era, 184.
98 Cartwright, I. and Willock, A. “Oceania’s birthright: the role of rights based management in tuna
fisheries of the Western and Central Pacific”, in Shotton, R. ed., FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 404/1 – Use of Property Rights in Fisheries Management, Proceedings of the FishRights99 Conference, Fremantle, 11-19 November, 1999.
“the most significant change to the institutional environment of the WCP.”99 The
MHLC process was concluded after five years and resulted in the development of the
Convention of the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in Western and Central Pacific Ocean which was open for signature in 2000.100 The
Convention is yet to come into force.101
Particular global attention has been paid to the South Pacific tuna fishery where it has been found that it “offers a model of international cooperation for open sea fishing that may prove to be the first sustainable, multinational ocean fishery in the world.”102 It was also argued in GEO 3 that the trend towards integrated planning
and development of ocean and marine resources through national, regional and global initiatives is ‘encouraging.’103
Whilst regional initiatives have impacted the development of the oceans policy in Australia, the South Pacific nations have closely observed the oceans policy development. It has been suggested that similar policy developments may be considered by the islands for the management of their marine resources.104 Bergin
and Michaelis argue that due to the financial assistance, economic and political
99 Ibid.
100 See http://www.unescap.org.mced2000/pacific/background/mhlc.htm
101 Australia ratified the Convention on 16 September 2003. See Joint Statement by Minister for
Fisheries, Forestry and Conservation, Senator Ian MacDonald, and Minister for Foreign Affairs, Alexander Downer, Australia Ratifies Fisheries Treaty, Media Release, 16 September 2003. Also see http://www.oceanlaw.net
102 UNEP, “Chapter 2 – Coastal and Marine Areas”.
103 UNEP, “GEO 3 fact sheet”, http://www.unep.org/GEO/pdfs/GEO-
3%20%Fact%20Sheet%20Asia%20&%20the.pdf, date cited: 24 June 2003.
104 Bergin, A. and Michaelis, B. “Australia and the South Pacific: implementing the UNCED oceans
interests, South Pacific marine resource issues will continue as priority to Australia.105