Variable 2 (Rendimiento Academico) Tabla 6
II. Correlaciones
3.13.1 Resultados de las Hipótesis específicos con sus respectivas dimensiones
Composition of the orange peel flour was: 5.40±0.25% ethereal extract, 3.53±0.53%
protein, 6.15±0.05% ashes and 38.11±0.56% total fiber.
For total moisture, the three mixtures components presented a significantly higher effect (p<0.01) on this property (Table 2). In regression equation (R2= 82.18), the three parameters had similar values. This means that non-meat extenders water retention was similar in meat batters during and after thermal process. In the isoresponse curve (Figure 2a) potato starch presented a constant effect since isoresponse lines were perpendicular to this vertex.
Nonetheless, higher moisture values were obtained close to carrageenan or orange peel vertexes (pure components). For expressible moisture, the three mixture design components had a significantly higher (p<0.01) effect on the sausages capacity to retain water. According to regression equation (R2= 81.50), orange peel flour had lower influence (lower released water values) on expressible moisture, whereas potato starch and carrageenan increased water release (Table 2). This was reflected on isoresponse curve, where the carrageenan and potato starch vertexes had higher expressible moisture values (Figure 2b). In this view, at higher orange peel flour proportions, at the employed experimental conditions, the expressible moisture (ability of a system to hold water present in excess and under the influence of an external force) decreased with a concomitant increase in total moisture, as compared to potato starch or carrageenan.
Hydration properties of different meat extenders depend on their characteristics.
Carrageenan and orange peel flour increased sausages moisture. In sausages elaborated with mechanically deboned meat, it has been reported that the use of carrageenan increased the water holding capacity, since carrageenan was placed in the interstitial spaces in the protein network, decreasing the compaction of the gel network, allowing bind more water (Ayadiet al., 2009). In same manner, moisture and water retention was improved when potato starch was employed in sausages formulation (Dzieszuk et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2008).
Nonetheless, lower moisture was retained by starch since their hydration depends on the starch granule gelatinization (Murphy, 2000). Higher moistures values were detected at higher orange peel flour proportions, because the higher fiber content.
Table 2. Regression model and Analysis of Variance for the total moisture, expressible moisture and oxidative rancidity of the different formulated sausages
Total moisture (%)= 65.12 Orange peel +62.59 Starch +65.72 CGN, R2= 82.18
Source DF SS MS F Pr>F
Orange peel 1 7744.845 7744.645 2205.112 0.0001
Starch 1 7156.883 7156.883 2037.721 0.0001
CGN 1 7891.932 7891.932 2247.004 0.0001
Model 2 8.197 4.098 1.167 0.3652
Error 7 24.585 3.512
Total 9 32.782
Expressible moisture (%)= 12.42 Orange peel +16.59 Starch +18.93 CGN, R2= 81.50
Source DF SS MS F Pr>F
Orange peel 1 281.828 281.828 61.884 0.0001
Starch 1 503.266 503.266 110.514 0.0001
CGN 1 655.115 655.115 143.854 0.0001
Model 2 32.472 16.235 3.565 0.0455
Error 7 31.879 4.554
Total 9 64.356
Oxidative rancidity (mg MLD/kg)= 0.1408 Orange peel +0.5629 Starch +0.4772 CGN – 0.9839 Orange peel*Starch, R2= 92.69
Source DF SS MS F Pr>F
Orange peel 1 0.0268 0.0268 2.841 0.0392
Starch 1 0.4291 0.4291 45.769 0.0012
CGN 1 0.4137 0.4137 44.127 0.0072
Orange peel*Starch 1 0.0495 0.0495 5.247 0.0383
Model 3 0.2367 0.7891 8.417 0.0216
Error 4 0.0562 0.0093
Total 9 0.2929
Figure 2. Isoresponse curve for: (a) total moisture, (b) expresible moisture y (c) oxidative rancidity in formulated sausages.
Fiber application in meat products help to retain water and decrease cooking loses since fiber inclusion contributes to bind water and keep product juiciness (Verma et al., 2010;
Yalinkiliç et al., 2012). Carrageenan or fiber contained in orange peel flour hydrated more easily than starch, increasing total moisture and retaining more water into the meat system.
Sausages oxidative rancidity was significantly (p<0.05) affected by the components in mixture design. Carrageenan and potato starch had a significantly higher (p<0.01) effect on this parameter, where according to regression equation (R2= 92.69) carrageenan and potato starch increased the lipid oxidation in sausages, while orange peel flour decreased lipid oxidation (negative sign in equation). In same manner, interaction between orange peel flour and potato starch also decreased the rancidity values (Table 2). In the isoresponse curve, when orange peel flour concentration increased the oxidative rancidity decreased, in comparison of the higher values detected in the potato starch and carrageenan vertexes (Figure 2c).
Total polyphenols content in citrus peel and a consequent higher antioxidant effect, besides the higher dietetic fiber content, make citrus peels a potential ingredient to formulate functional foods (Rincón et al., 2005). In same manner, antioxidant activity of by-products obtained from industrial manipulation of citrus fruit has been widely demonstrated in cooked meat products (Viuda-Martos et al., 2009). Such activity is basically due to their composition mainly to phenolic compounds and flavonoids (Abd El-Khalek and Zahran, 2013; Escobedo-Avellaneda et al., 2013). The no presence of these types of compounds in carrageenan or potato starch resulted in higher rancidity values.
Texture Profile Analysis
For sausages hardness, linear terms of the model presented a highly significant (p<0.01) effect. In the regression equation (R2= 99.74), potato starch had a stronger influence on this textural parameter, in comparison with orange peel flour or carrageenan (Table 3). This means that higher potato starch proportions resulted in harder sausages, where higher hardness values were perpendicular to the potato starch vertex (Figure 3a). Higher proportions of orange peel flour resulted in softer texture. In samples cohesiveness, linear terms had a highly significant (p<0.01) effect on texture, and the interaction orange peel flour with potato starch had a significantly (p<0.05) effect.
Table 3. Regression model and Analysis of Variance for the instrumental texture TPA of the different formulated sausages
Hardness (N)= 17.58 Orange peel +32.86 Starch +18.13 CGN, R2= 99.74
Source DF SS MS F Pr>F
Orange peel 1 564,609 564,609 69.481 0.0001
Starch 1 1973.141 1973.141 242.810 0.0001
CGN 1 600.864 600.864 73.943 0.0001
Model 2 223.941 56.882 8.126 0.0037
Error 7 56.7652 8.1093
Total 9 280.824
Table 3. (Continued)
Cohesiveness= 0.3997 Orange peel +0.3740 Starch +0.3149 CGN +0.0149 Orange peel*Starch, R2= 72.91
Source DF SS MS F Pr>F
Orange peel 1 0.2163 0.2163 187.268 0.0001
Starch 1 0.1895 0.1895 164,008 0.0001
CGN 1 0.1801 0.1801 155.877 0.0001
Orange peel*Starch 1 0.0001 0.0001 1.7002 0.0244
Model 3 0.0059 0.0019 21.1458 0.0653
Error 6 0.0069 0.0011
Total 9 0.0128
Resilience= 0.7158 Orange peel +0.7191 Starch +0.6657 CGN, R2= 47.01
Source DF SS MS F Pr>F
Orange peel 1 0.9362 0.9362 1338.216 0.0001
Starch 1 0.9446 0.9446 1350.234 0.0001
CGN 1 0.8097 0.8097 1157.308 0.0001
Model 2 0.0026 0.0013 1.9090 0.2179
Error 7 0.0049 0.0007
Total 9 0.0076
Figure 3. Isoresponse curve for: (a) hardness, (b) cohesiveness y (c) resilience in formulated sausages.
In the regression equation (R2= 72.91) linear parameters had similar values, that in addition to the positive effect of the orange peel flour and potato starch interaction, increasing cohesiveness values (Table 3). In the isoresponse curves at higher orange peel flour proportions the sausages cohesiveness was higher, in comparison with carrageenan or potato starch (Figure 3b). In the resilience, linear terms had a highly significant effect (p<0.01) on this textural characteristic. In the regression equation (R2= 74.01) the three components of the mixture had positive effect (Table 3). In the isoresponse curve at higher orange peel flour proportions the resilience values were higher (Figure 3c).
Although it has been reported that the fiber incorporation increased emulsified meat products hardness and cohesiveness (Fernández-Ginés et al., 2003; García et al., 2007;
Petridis et al., 2013), at the employed experimental conditions, orange peel flour resulted in softer but more cohesive and resilient texture. On other hand, potato starch in emulsified meat products compensates the textural properties increasing protein matrix structure gel strength (Kerry et al., 1999, Aktaş and Gençcelep, 2006; Li and Yeh, 2002) resulting in this case in a
harder, less cohesive and more resilient structure. Carrageenan incorporation increased hardness and cohesiveness of cooked sausages (Ayadi et al., 2009; Cierach et al., 2009). At the experimental conditions employed, pure carrageenan formulation obtained same hardness value than orange peel flour samples, but with lower cohesiveness and resilience values. Main differences between the studied extenders are their inherent diverse composition that determinate their functionality at sausages process conditions, like temperature and ionic strength.
For potato starch there are two main considerations. First, starch gelatinization is subject to differences between amylose and amylopectin biopolymers structure (as chains length, flexibility, regularity and tendency to self-aggregate), affecting solubility and thermodynamic compatibility (Tolstoguzov, 2003). Secondly, although potato starch is recommended in cooked meat products because swell easily due to their lower gelatinization and pasting temperatures (Murphy, 2000), salt presence modifies starch/meat complexes thermal properties (Defreitas et al., 1997; Li and Yeh, 2003). Salt repress starch granule swelling increasing gelatinization temperature (Bello-Pérez and Paredes-López, 1995). In this view, at cooked meat products environmental conditions starch gelatinization is affected since processing temperatures (70-72 °C) and salt content (2.0-2.5% = 0.5-0.6 M NaCl), potato starch granules are not able to completely gelatinize and swell, decreasing functionality and affecting in some degree cooked meat products water retention (García-García and Totosaus, 2008).
For carrageenans, water binding capacity, gel formation and thickening properties depend on their anionic character as result of the sulfate groups per repeating unit, where kappa carrageenan is employed in meat products for its gelling characteristics (Piculell, 2006).
However, ionic composition of a food system is important for effective utilization of the carrageenan, where ions presence also has a dramatic effect on the hydration, setting or gelation and melting temperatures. As a carrageenan dispersion is heated, particles do not swell or hydrate until the temperature exceeds about 4060 °C, but in meat brine sodium salt of kappa carrageenan will only fully hydrate at 55 °C, with a marked increase in viscosity followed by gelation below temperatures of 40-50 °C (Imeson, 2009). This implies that under meat processing conditions where meat products are of high ionic strength and/or reach internal temperatures of 6570 °C, kappa-carrageenan may not be completely solubilized and may not achieve optimal gel network development on cooling (Shand et al., 1994). Since sodium is a non specific helix promoting cation for kappa-carrageenan (Imeson, 2009), the presence of other specific helix-promoting cations (potassium and/or calcium) improved kappa carrageenan functionality in low fat sodium reduced meat batters (Totosaus et al., 2004).
For fiber contained in peel flour, the structural components had a different influence by environmental conditions. Dietary fiber from fruits had better nutritional quality because, in hand, the content of bioactive compounds (antioxidants like flavonoids and carotenoids); and on the other hand, a higher overall fiber content (with a greater soluble/insoluble dietary fiber ratio), in comparison to fiber from cereals (Chou and Huang, 2003). Soluble components, as pectin and gums, are soluble dietary fiber; and insoluble materials as cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin are non soluble dietary fiber (Thebaudin et al., 1997). Key property of fruit fiber (cell wall matrix as principal structural component) is hydration that summarizes the ability to swell, bind water, enhance viscosity and prevent syneresis (Fischer, 2003). The swelling
capacity of fiber was not influenced by salt presence (1 M) because cell wall structures differences (different hydration properties). Cellulose cell walls are rigid and hydrophobic, whereas parenchymatous cell walls are rich in hydrophilic pectin and highly hydrated in vivo.
In cellulose cell walls the main factor associated to hydration is probably the solvation of its constituent polysaccharides, counteracted by the lignin/cellulose network. In parenchymal structures, electrostatic forces of the constituent pectin are prevalent, solvating charged ionogenic groups provoking an electrostatic repulsion between adjacent carboxyl groups (Renard et al., 1994). In this view, is expected that orange peel flour, rich in fiber, was not affected by emulsified meat products processing conditions, as temperature or ion strength, having a better functional performance retaining water and improving texture.
C
ONCLUSIONMost employed meat extenders like potato starch or kappa-carrageenan do not had the optimum performance at the emulsified meatprocess conditions, like temperature and salt concentration. The fiber content (around 38%) in orange peel flour presented a better performance at the experimental conditions employed, as compared to potato starch or carrageenan, and was not influenced by either temperature or salt concentration as emulsified meat process conditions. Orange peel flour increased moisture and retained more water (as total moisture and liberated water) than potato starch or carrageenan, besides decrease the oxidative rancidity in cooked sausages. Minimal changes in color were observed by replace potato starch and/or carrageenan by orange peel flour. Orange peel can replace potato starch at lower amount to reach close hardness values. Softer and less compact samples (lower cohesiveness and resilience) were obtained with carrageenan, as compared to orange peel flour. Theseresults means that orange peel flour as a cheap and viable fiber source can replace more expensive meat extenders, as potato starch or carrageenan.
A
CKNOWLEDGMENTSThis work was supported into the project ―Aprovechamiento de subproductos agroindustriales como fuente de fibra y su posible utilización como prebióticos en productos cárnicos‖, PICSO 11-21 ICyTDF, México City, México.
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