The next section will consider the works of several adult learning theorists. Malcolm Knowles’ andragogical theory of how adults learn (1980, 1984) will be reviewed as he follows in the tradition of Carl Rogers, claiming that forming collaborative, consensual relationships with students is the key to successful learning. A critical analysis of the theory of andragogy and its successor, Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning (1975, 1991), then follows. These theories have change as their goal of learning but both acknowledge that there is no one definitive approach by which this can be achieved. The rationale for concentrating on these scholars is that they argue that examining our assumptions, values and attitudes about learning can lead to the creation of new ways of thinking and acting, a process that is hypothesised to occur when an adapted version of the SMI is used in teaching. A review of the effects of group size on student learning is included here since many nurse lecturers felt this constrained the effectiveness of student-centred teaching approaches. Andragogy is ‘the art and science of helping adults learn’ (Knowles 1980:42) and is contrasted with pedagogy, which is the way that Knowles (1980) argues that children learn. Fundamental assumptions about the nature of adult learning focus on the qualities inherent in the learner, the relationship between the learner and teacher, what is to be learnt and what motivates the adult to learn. Knowles (1980) described self-directed learning as a
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characteristic of adult learners in which they are able to identify their own learning needs, set goals and identify the learning resources they need to achieve those goals. Adult learners are motivated to learn and this learning is normally associated with developing or acquiring new attitudes as well as new skills and knowledge. This concept of self-direction as a distinguishing feature of adult learning enjoys support from several scholars (Tough 1967; Candy 1991; Brookfield 1995; Billington 2007; McDonough 2013). Adult learning serves to create, develop and enrich social roles. Although external motivators do promote adult learning, Knowles (1980) argued that internal motivators such as a perceived increased in self-esteem, self-efficacy or confidence are more powerful in achieving this end. An andragogical approach is understood to be student- centred because it emphasises the needs of the individual and by doing so promotes autonomy and critical thinking. Although these assumptions about how adults learn have been adopted by many adult educators and indeed endorsed as desirable for nurse training since the 1980’s (National Boards for England and Wales 1986), the evidence upon which they rest is controversial and argued by some to be largely anecdotal (Jarvis 1984; Davenport and Davenport 1985; Merriam and Caffarrella 1991). Several authors have pointed to the few research studies that exist which explore the validity of andragogy (Hartree 1984; Davenport 1993; Merriam and Caffarrella 1998) and therefore its central tenets about the way that adults learn remain relatively untested. Some have questioned whether Knowles’ theory of how adults learn is in fact a theory at all (Davenport and Davenport 1985; Hartree 1984), whilst others have pointed out that many of his assumptions about how adults learn are not unique to adults
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(Merriam et al 1996; Merriam 2001; Hanson 1996). For instance, Merriam (2001) states that many adults are motivated to learn by external factors such as keeping their jobs and maintaining their status. Moreover, some adult experiences can have a negative impact on learning (Merriam et al 1996). Misch (2002) considers the concept of motivation espoused by Knowles (1980, 1984) as too simplistic, since it ignores the role played by numerous biological, psychological, political, economic and contextual factors on its expression and effectiveness.
A review by Rachal (2002) into the research conducted on andragogy points out several major flaws in the methodologies of these studies. He points to several weaknesses such as a lack of randomisation of the experimental and control groups, and different operational definitions of the concept of andragogy. For example, most of the studies revealed that the students had little control over the content, assessment and evaluation of course material and no real consensus on what it means to be an adult learner. In addition, Rachal (2002) argues that the studies conducted into its efficacy so far have used methods of evaluation that do not adhere to the principles that are at the heart of this approach to teaching and learning. Others, notably Belenky et al. (1986), have specified that differences exist between the ways that men and women learn, not mentioned in andragogical theory.
Andragogy is an approach that advocates a new way of being with students, irrespective of age, in which insights from critical theory, person- centred therapy, transformative learning, phenomenology and feminist thinking have all made a contribution towards developing a stronger and more robust evidence base of teacher-learner effectiveness (Merriam
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2001). For some though this is an incomplete theory of education because it fails to explore the social, political, cultural and economic factors that influence the development and sustainability of collaborative teacher- learner relationships, and the extent to which these collaborations can affect change (Brookfield 1995; Purdy 1995). This criticism is one that can be levelled at transformative learning and indeed MI and the SMI, since they have little to say on how social factors impact on the likelihood of collaboration and change. This emphasis on the promotion of collaborative relationships in education has been challenged on the basis that these relationships are incapable on their own of promoting real change for those who are powerless, and are a means by which the more dominant groups in society can maintain the status quo (Holloway and Penson 1987; Purdy 1995).