3.6.1 Quality and Extent of the Literature Base. Overall, 32 articles (58%) out of the 55 articles received a high-quality appraisal; 20 articles (36%) received moderate grading; while three articles (6%) received low grading. Lack of the discussion of the ethical consideration for the articles was the most common deficit identified. There was 100% rater agreement between the author and her supervisor on the quality category (high, moderate or low) of the included articles. The features of the included articles are presented in Table 5. Most of the articles, 51% (n=28) were cross-sectional qualitative studies; 22% (n= 12) articles were survey studies; 15% (n= 8) articles used data from randomized control studies from national or provincial health surveys among the Canadian studies; 2% (n=1) study was a quasi-experimental study, 2% (n=1) was a retrospective study; 2% (n=1) was an integrative review study; 2% (n=1) was a systematic review; 4% (n=2) were news articles representing grey literature.
3.6.2 Summary of Findings
The summaries of the significant findings from the retrieved articles are presented in Table 7. Findings from the articles regarding the factors that impact seeking medical care after breast cancer discovery and the factors that impact participation in breast health actvities by women could broadly be divided into two major categories namely: a) factors that facilitate seeking medical care or factors that facilitate participation in breast health activities and b) factors that inhibit or factors that act as barriers to seeking medical care or participating in breast health activities (Tables 8, 9, & 10, show the summaries). The same set of factors that act as facilitators could also act as barriers to seeking medical care after breast cancer symptom discovery and participation in breast health activities. The identified factors could further be subdivided into three categories: personal or individual factors, healthcare system factors, and sociocultural factors. The personal factors could further be subdivided to awareness and knowledge. The sociocultural factors could be related to attitudes and beliefs, which could include misconceptions about breast cancer, spirituality, and perceived susceptibility to breast cancer. The healthcare system factors could be related to access to care. Access to care could include issues related to healthcare financing and healthcare delivery.
The findings within the Canadian studies showed that the intentions to participate in screening activities or to engage in breast health activities positively correlated with previous mammography, encouragement to have a mammography from the physician and other healthcare providers such as the nurses, knowledge and awareness about breast cancer, knowing a person with breast cancer, and absence of negative attitudes (O’Connor et al., 1995; Vahabi, 2011; & Kolahdooz et al., 2014). The authors concluded their studies by stating that improvements in participation rates will be achieved only if women are convinced of the need for screening and
physicians encourage them to be screened.
Bottorff et al. (1998) and Donnelly (2009) discussed four central domains of beliefs within ethnic minority groups related to breast health practices: a) beliefs about a woman’s calling, b) beliefs about cancer, c) beliefs about taking care of one’s breasts, and d) beliefs about accessing services. These beliefs hold important implications for how health promotion strategies should be structured and offered to the ethnic minority groups. In particular, attention must be paid to the language that is used to talk about breast cancer. According to the authors, these factors can either act as facilitators or barriers to participating in breast health promotion activities. It depends on how they are tailored. Ahmed et al. (2005) and Donnelly et al. (2007) affirmed that to provide quality and equitable health care for clients of different ethnocultural backgrounds, an alternative approach is needed that is not only sensitive but also considers the socioeconomic factors that affect their lives. If health care professionals are to advocate for holistic health care, then health care services ought to examine how socioeconomic status at the intersection of race, gender, and class shapes an individual’s multiple social positions, which in turn affect health and healthcare behaviour. De et al. (2000); De Grasse et al. (1996); de Konning (2003),
recommended the need to continually search for and continually evaluate innovative strategies to align practices within the Canadian health care system to encourage ethnic minorities to
participate in breast health activities. According to Vahabi (2010), opportunistic teaching during each health encounter should be encouraged and reinforced.
Having a strong family history of breast cancer was not considered as an isolated situation but part of one’s journey in choosing to undergo genetic testing for inherited breast cancer susceptibility (Maheu, 2009). According to Martin et al. (2006), the perception of risk was not associated with surveillance practices and screening in women with a family history of
breast cancer. However, depression should be considered closely when dealing with women with a higher-than-average risk of breast cancer.
Paquette et al. (2000) stated that the results of randomized trials showed that breast cancer screening with mammography reduces breast cancer mortality by up to 40% in women aged 50-69 years. As a result of these findings, by 1998, 22 countries, including Canada had established population-based screening programs. The authors recommended the translation of the benefits of breast cancer screening by mammography as demonstrated in the randomized trials, into population-based community programs. de Koning et al. (2003) advocated for the continuation of the current Canadian nationwide population-based mammography screening programs.
The satisfaction women get from health care services can influence their participation in breast cancer screening activities (Decker et al., 1999). Women who are satisfied with healthcare services are more likely to use the facility again. Study by Donnelly et al. (2008) revealed
valuable insights that might be helpful to healthcare professionals caring for Vietnamese Canadian women. The authors recommended that for the promotion of breast cancer screening, efforts should be made to a) recruit Vietnamese-speaking female healthcare professionals for breast cancer health promotion programs, b) reduce woman-physicians hierarchical relationships and foster effective doctor-patient communications, c) healthcare providers must be aware of their own cultural beliefs, values and attitudes that they bring to practice, and d) more
institutional support and resources should be given to both Vietnamese Canadian women and their healthcare providers.
Within the Canadian studies, identified barriers to mammography screening were: membership in an ethnic minority group, concerns about pain, radiation and embarrassment,
misconception about breast cancer, and linking a negative lifestyle with the development of breast cancer (Bryant et al.,1992; Hansen et al.,1999). According to the authors, many women attributed breast cancer to “being in the hands of others”, explaining that breast cancer was caused by careless words, curses or divine power and that breast cancer was seen as something that could be passed down within the family. Study by McDonald et al. (2010) revealed that mammography use was significantly lower in rural and remote areas, even after a range of other demographic and socioeconomic factors were accounted for. One important factor underpinning this result according to the authors appears to be differences in attitudes about the importance of regular mammography screening for women residing in the rural and urban areas. The authors recommended that information campaigns raising awareness about the importance of
mammography screening should be targeted, in particular, at women residing in rural and remote areas. The inability to speak one of the two official languages was an important barrier among Asian immigrant women identified by Sun et al. (2009). (Table 9 shows the details).
Within the Nigerian studies, findings showed that a greater majority of breast cancer patients presented with late stages of the disease in the hospital due to lack of awareness and knowledge about breast cancer and breast health issues (Akhigbe et al., 2006; Anyanwu, 2011; Chirdin et al., 2006; Ibrahim et al., 2012; Ihenacho et al., 2013; Irurhe et al., 2001; Isara et al., 2011; Moorley et al., 2014; Obajimi et al., 2013; Odusanya, 2001; Okobia et al., 2006;
Oluwatosin et al., 2006; & Oluwatosin, 2010). Other barriers identified by Bello (2012); Pruitt et al. (2014); and Ukwenya et al. (2008) were a lack of access to optimal care and adequate
infrastructure. Bello et al. (2011); Ibrahim et al. (2009); Ibrahim et al. (2012); Moorley et al. (2014); Omoyeni et al. (2014); & Pruitt et al. (2014), identified various attitudes and beliefs such as belief in spiritual healing, belief in herbal treatment, fear of mastectomy as factors impacting
presentation for medical care after breast cancer symptom discovery in women. Ntekim et al. (2009); Ohaeri et al. (1999), identified socioeconomic factors as impacting presentation for medical care, while Odusanya et al. (2001) and Okobia et al. (2006) advocated for the
establishment of institutional framework and policy guidelines that will enhance adequate and urgent dissemination of information about breast cancer and breast health activities to all women in Nigeria.