PART IV. DISCUSSION
3. Results
“Life is change, and whatever doesn’t change is dead.”
Ralph Thomlinson (1969)
The aim of this section is to elaborate on the definitions of change and persistence, which are not opposites but dependent on each other; they constitute a phenomenon that diffuses and penetrates each aspect of our lives. In this part, the notion of change will be examined by illustrating the meaning of change, then by discussing three main pillars of thoughts relating to change. These main pillars are: the process of change (which includes agents of change); consequences of change (the level of impact of change on the structure); and persistence theory. To start with, an understanding of the meaning of the duality of change and persistence in linguistics, philosophy needs to be introduced. The term ‘change’ connects different aspects of existence56 and different modes of thought, and these flow into architecture and urban design. In language, the word ‘change’ has many meanings; it is the change of state as a result of alteration or modification, the replacement or removal of things, and the transition from one phase
55This concept appears in early Islam to depict the Qur’anic image on the paradise gardens; however, part of this concept can be traced back to Achaemenid or, more likely, Babylon and its hanging garden.
The idea of the walled garden started in the Abbasid palaces in Samarra of Iraq in 9th century CE then migrated to Egypt, Andalusia and Maghreb to return again to the East but to Iran, not Iraq. The concept of the walled garden was revitalised in Isfahan during the Safavid period in 17th century when the central spine of Chahar Bagh was constructed. Then the concept was taken by the Timurids to Samakand, and by the Moghul in 17th century where the emperor Babur supervised its construction; it also appeared in Lahore of Pakistan in 17th century, the Shalimar gardens (Bianca 2000, pp.61-62). This historical background and the migration of the architype to different places could be that there is no original type;
probably the main roots for all these ideas started from the cities of Mesopotamian.
56 Throughout history many scholars and philosophers believed that everything is changing and evolving, nothing is persistent, but the Substantial Reality/Deity/Energy/Matter/Source.
to another. Change57 also means an alteration that makes a difference in some particular area or makes radical alterations leading to transformation (Cambridge Dictionaries online 2015; OED 2013; Harper, n.d). Dealing with the idea of change requires dealing with the term that connects to it, namely, persistence. Persistence is a vital notion as without it, change will result in a discontinuity with the past. In language the word ‘persistence’ reflects “the action or fact of persisting in a particular state”
(OED 2015). It also means the continuity of something to exist or occur (Harper, n.d.).
This profound theme (persistence and change) has been explored directly and indirectly in many fields from different perspectives and manifested in various terminologies by theorists under the same concept of ‘continuity’, ‘persistence’, or
‘permanence’ within the change. In philosophy, one of the main themes of Heraclitus' ideas is the notion of ‘unity’ which depends on change and persistence, in other words the binary opposition that is nourishing the concept of the unity (Kirk 1951, p. 35). For him the meaning of persistence appears through the idea of a ‘flux’. Heraclitus states that ‘Everything is in flux’ means everything is always flowing and constantly changing. In his context the flux provides a constructive not a destructive aspect to the idea of persistence; it is also a conditional element for persistence (Graham 2015, no pagination).
Heraclitus (6th century BCE) says58:
“On those stepping into rivers staying the same other and other waters flow”
or
“Upon those who step into the same rivers, different and different waters flow”
The sentence says that different waters flow in rivers staying the same. In other words, though the waters are always changing, the rivers stay the same. Indeed, it must be precisely because the waters are always changing that there are rivers at all, rather than lakes or ponds. The message is that rivers can stay the same over time even though, or indeed because, the waters change. The point, then, is not that everything is changing, but the fact that some phenomena change makes possible the continued existence of
57 Thinkmap Visual Thesaurus (2013) recognises that some words relate to change, such as modify, alter, exchange, convert, and replace.
58 Not only can you not step into the same river twice, it is not the same you that does the stepping.
other phenomena. Perhaps more generally, the change in elements or constituents supports the constancy of higher-level structures (Graham 2015, no pagination)
The notion of change in Aristotle’s perception takes many patterns, the main one being related to persistence, which is called ‘matter’. According to Aristotle59, all change happens in an object or a structure that has the potential to change (Aristotle, Physics, pp. 56-60). The change occurs because of the movers/agents/factors, which can affect the object’s quality, that is to say the substance, and its quantity, size (growth or diminution) and place (Magee 2015, no pagination; Aristotle, Physics, p. 60). In any process of change there must be something that remains when the old passes and something new must come, that is to say there must be persistence through change.
Aristotle introduces the three principles, which are form, privation, and matter. ‘Form’
for him is something new, whereas ‘privation’ is something old that was removed or subtracted from the original sources, and ‘matter’ is something that remains the same throughout this process (Magee 2015, no pagination). An example would be the piece of stone that can be changed into a statue. Despite the change in its shape and function, its matter, which is the stone, persists. Hence, in the philosophy of Heraclitus, change and persistence are one, they complete each other. For him, phenomena must be changed to help other phenomena to persist, like in the example of the river, as the water is changing but the river is still the same and maintains the same function. For Aristotle, persistence is the aspect that remains within the process of change, meaning the substantial aspect. The above-mentioned shows that change can happen when an object is located in a specific time and place, then faces different forces, and reaches a point where it is unable to accommodate itself in the current situation.
The change can include acts of removal, elimination, movement, transaction or interaction from a precise situation to another due to different causes. The persistence here is the consistency of something within the change and at the same time the change works as a main condition for the persistence. The process of change can be either unconscious or conscious/purposeful change. The first is slow/steady/spontaneous
59 The impact of change can be seen in the end point, not in its starting point (Aristotle, Physics, p. 116).
This highlights the importance of time as it is one of the main aspects in the process of change.
change that can happen by the collective will, such as the growth or evolution of the urban, organic fabric of traditional cities. In contrast conscious, purposeful, or confrontational change occurs following specific external forces, such as the ruling authority, or new needs that lead to the act of change. Khayat (2001, p. 62); Hillier and Hanson (1988, p. 43); Baker (1996, pp. 16-20); Lang (1987, p. 25); Gosling and Maitland (1984, p. 26) define directly and indirectly the unconscious change in the urban environment as being like the process of growth in a steady settlement, represented by traditional, primitive or vernacular architectures, which have grown naturally, as it is difficult to pin down or identify its starting point. Conscious change, however, is the result of a planned action, a design decision or an existing concept, ready to be implemented. It also can be said that conscious change almost certainly comes from the will of the ruling authority, which can be influenced by different factors such as religious, socio-cultural, political and environmental aspects. For example, Baker (1996, pp. 16-20) points out how ideas or thoughts have powerful impacts on urban environments and people. In his argument, he positions high art and monumental architecture under purposeful or conscious changes. In his opinion, monumental architecture was the main means used to convey ideas and transfer the meanings of religions or temporal power to the masses. This is because they were erected to impress and affect the feelings of people rather than to be inhabited by them.
These kinds of building designs were constructed with good building materials and by skilled people, designers and architects. The following will attempt to understand these kinds of change, the agents of change and it will look at the purpose of change as well as the level of impact of change on the structure.
Agents of Change
Both conscious and unconscious changes that occur to the city’s structure and its urban environment can come from different agents. These agents have varying effects, such as political, socio-economic, religious effects, as well as effects on population migration, tourism, natural forces, and other factors driven by necessity (Lehtovuori 2010, p. 150). Allen, Strathern, and Baldwin (2006, p. 23) argue that any system changes and evolves when new actions, agents, or causes invade the system and cause it to reach a significant enough level needed to produce change. These agents transfer the object from one specific situation to another. One of the main agents of change is
the socio-cultural facto, which plays a major role in changing and re-shaping the urban environment. Jivén and Larkham (2010, p. 79) and Kubler (1970, p. 59) argue that the values of any society or individual change over time; what is valued today might not be tomorrow and vice versa. As a result, a city’s structure will undergo change. Kubler (1970, p. 59) also goes further and states that “[t]he traditional behaviour of a person or of a group is challenged and defeated. New behaviour is learned from the victors, but during the learning period, the new behaviour is itself changing”. Therefore, nothing is stable, as any social system that has a structure and coherent behaviours can be exposed to abrupt change which influences its stability (McGlade 2006, p. 82).
Regarding cities, change happens with the development of new lifestyles that led to the adoption of new customs and concepts. These new ideas resulted from an openness to the world, mixing and connecting with other cultures. They also come from immigrants who cause an increase in population growth, which, consequently, influences the need for new architectural designs and spaces (Rossi: Texts and Projects 2012; Cohen 1999, p. 12; Hock and Joseph 1996, pp. 8-10; Rossi 1982, p. 55). An example are the changes that happen to house pattern designs and the move from the inward to the outward-looking stage (Cohen 1999, pp. 11-15). Rapoport (1984, p. 6) also highlights that the consequence of new ideas is the change in urban form and space, such as the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants with the traditional ways resulting from the introduction of new specialisations and new ideas that impact the urban fabric. Furthermore, modern technologies with specialist requirements make the change desirable and require adaptations to be built-in to new housing, or alterations to have to be made to older dwellings or business premises. Economic developments have the power to affect the urban business environment. This is clear in the case of commercial investments in fields, such as sports events, cultural festivals, and concert venues that impact on the availability of space (Lehtovuori 2010, pp. 150-151). In this case it is governmental bodies, vested with significant authority to regulate these businesses that affect the image of the city. Natural factors impact and change the shape of urban environments, such as earthquakes, changing temperature, rain and wind, which cause erosion of the urban environment and the degradation of a building’s local construction material (Lang 1987, p. 83). The impact of the weather is very obvious in traditional cities; it has been manifested through aspects introduced
by the builders and the inhabitants, like a building’s energy efficiency and the methods invented for controlling the amount of light that penetrates the urban fabric and its components, for example the narrow streets and the thick house walls. Religious agents also affect the shape of a city; Rapoport (1969, p. 41) argues that change might affect the spatial organisation, type of buildings and their orientation inside a city. For example, the religion of Islam impacts the persistence of some traditional urban elements as they were in line with its dogma, such as the courtyard, while others like the open theatre disappeared (Bianca 2000, pp. 12-13). The agent of power (represented by a ruler, government, local authority or any other institution) impacts on the shape of a city (figure1.20). History illustrates the role of rulers in changing and impacting the urban planning of a city. The Round City of Baghdad, for example, was designed based on a sketch that was drawn by the Abbasid Caliphate, Abu Ja'far Al-Mansour. In the 12th century CE the ruler of Erbil, Muẓaffar Al-Din in Erbil caused a big change and impact on the city’s urban structure.
Figure 1.20: The impact of the multi agents on the change
It is believed that all these agents, causes or factors have the strength and power to change and they may work together in various levels (as some are more influential than others) to shape or reshape the urban structure. Examples from the history of Mesopotamia show the impact of multi-agents - religions, the rulers’ power, and culture- on the form of an urban environment. One of these was the procession street of Babylon, which passed through the Ishtar Gate and was decorated with reliefs of lions. On this avenue, every spring a dazzling procession in honour of the God Mardukh, the king of Babylon and other gods’ and goddesses’ statues, took place in celebration of the Babylonian’s New Year's Festival (Jarus 2014, no pagination), this
New Year’s Festival, taking place in the first month, Nissan/Nishan in the Babylonian calendar, which is equivalent to the 21st of March60 in the Gregorian calendar (figure 1.21).
Figure 1.21: The city model of the main procession street of Babylon
Marduk, god of ancient Mesopotamia, the king of Babylon, patron deity of the city of Babylon, and members of the royal court use to passes through it during the celebration of the New Year’s festival
Source: (Wikimedia Commons, 2007, by Gryffindoe; the model available in Pergamon Museum Berlin)
Another example is the Isfahan Chahar Bagh avenue which was built between 1596 CE and 1597 CE by the order of Shah Abbas, the ruler of Persia61, who organised the new city around a public square that connected the north city with the south and has a length of about 6 km (Conan 2007, p. 142). It can be said that the ideas around Chahar Bagh Avenue were probably adapted from Mesopotamia, as these elements persist throughout history (figure 1.22).
60 “The dazzling procession of the gods and goddesses, dressed in their finest seasonal attire, atop their bejewelled chariots began at the Kasikilla, the main gate of the Esagila (a temple dedicated to Marduk), and proceeded north along Marduk’s processional street through the Ishtar Gate,” (Bidmead 2004)
61 It is possible that the origins of this archetype were influenced by Mesopotamia’s cities. Herodotus states that “There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persians. Thus, they have taken the dress of the Medes [the ancestor of Kurds], considering it superior to their own; and in war they wear the Egyptian breastplate. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their own”
(Blakeney 1936, p.71)
Figure 1.22: The Chahar Bagh Avenue in Isfahan
Source: Wikimedia Commons, drawn by Cornelis de Bruyn (circa 1726/1727)
Sometimes the level of effectiveness of local authorities has negative consequences on a city’s urban structure due to the lack of comprehensive city plans, and that might have a negative impact and damage the existing structures (Cohen 1999, pp. 11-15;
Gosling and Maitland 1984, pp. 8-26; Rossi 1984, pp. 161-162). Furthermore, setbacks can come from bad decisions regarding public transportation strategies, a lack of a rational distribution of different activities, unclear understanding of the historical area, a misuse of historical elements, and a lack of integration of their function with the surrounding area. Therefore, the past will often be seen as a burden, the historic buildings or urban fabric will be seen as impediments. This can lead to their demolition and the continued emptying of the old urban core (Cohen 1999, pp. 11-15); or they will become what Rossi described as pathological elements working as museums (Rossi 1982, p. 59). It is thought that one of the main aspects in the process of change is the culmination62 of that change which leads in some situations to a moment of the so-called crisis. Nietzsche introduced the term ‘crisis’ to denote to an ultimate stage which leads to a significant change in any situation (De Sola-Morales 1999, p. 57).
In the architectural world the term ‘crisis’ has appeared markedly in writings by Foucault and was a turning point from the classical age to the modern stage63 (ibid., pp. 57-59). Other studies such as those by Lehtovuori (2010, p. 150), Al-Hashimi
62 The culmination of change that connects the before with the after.
63 This event of change or movement in architecture was affected by Nietzsche who announced ‘The death of God’. This statement indicates the disappearance of any kind of reference/base in design, and emphasises the end with no return and deletes the past (De Sola-Morales 1999, pp. 57-59).
(2005, p. 6), De Sola-Morales (1999, p. 57), Hock and Joseph (1996, pp. 8-10) and Kuhan (1970, p. 224) all emphasise that each moment or culmination marks and creates a change. It starts when a continuous tradition, meaning stability of community, economy, politics and science, reaches a crisis point and a stage of being unable to find solutions or function in its previously successful manner. At this point it requires action or a firm decision to deal with the problem by creating a moment of change. To sum up this section, it is clear that agents or forces have a major role to play in changing the urban environment. They vary in their dominance, but have the power to change and reshape objects (figure 1.23).
Figure 1.23: The impact of conscious and unconscious changes on the structure
The speed of the process of change, the rapidity of change, varies between short and long-term changes. It may happen suddenly, rapidly and unexpectedly, like in an aggressive action such as war, or naturally, like earthquakes or any other natural forces.
Sometimes, the process of change spans long periods of time as it happens gradually (individual events within it might happen on a regular basis) and incorporates a series of transformations (Chomsky 2014; Abel 2000, p. 134; Al-Hanafi 1987, p. 31; Rossi 1982, p. 144; Kubler 1970, pp. 58-59). Rossi (1982, p. 61) highlights that sometimes a city changes its face several times during a man’s life.
The Consequences of Change
Scholars from different fields and perspectives argue that change can affect the external structure or intrinsic properties of an object64, or both but at varying levels
64 Any biological system has mechanisms of duplication or reproduction and these lead to the decline or flourishing of some of its characteristics. There are mutations that occur in living beings, i.e. humans,
(Chomsky 2014; Hock and Josep 2009, pp. 13 -14; Abbas 2008, p. 175; Ching 2007, pp. 50-193; Allen, Strathern, and Baldwin 2006, p. 23; Hock and Joseph 1996, pp.8-10; Antoniadis 1990, pp. 66-67; Al-Hanafi 1987, p. 31; Slayba 1982, p. 31; Aristotle, Physics, p. 57). Series of changes also happen on an architectural level, in construction,
(Chomsky 2014; Hock and Josep 2009, pp. 13 -14; Abbas 2008, p. 175; Ching 2007, pp. 50-193; Allen, Strathern, and Baldwin 2006, p. 23; Hock and Joseph 1996, pp.8-10; Antoniadis 1990, pp. 66-67; Al-Hanafi 1987, p. 31; Slayba 1982, p. 31; Aristotle, Physics, p. 57). Series of changes also happen on an architectural level, in construction,