In this study the strategies to initiate classroom interaction activities mentioned below, defined by Herrell and Jordan (2012:26-117) have been selected as follows to attain the main objectives of classroom interaction:
learning centres
scaffolding
script writing
the use of posters and diaries initiated by Dam (1998)
Since there are many strategies that teachers can employ to make teaching and learning situation successful, the point the researcher wants to make is that there are strategies, depending on the subject matter engaged with, which are more suitable than others. In this study the researcher only selected strategies that match the classroom interaction activities that have been dealt with and the researcher briefly explained their suitability.
A teaching strategy refers to a broad plan of action, which includes the selection of teaching activities with the purpose of achieving a specific outcome. A teaching strategy includes methods, procedures, activities and techniques that may assist the teacher in promoting learners’ ability to understand learning content (i.e. knowledge) (Fraser, Loubser & Van Rooy 1996 cited in Van Wyk 2007:19).
Since this study aims to design a framework for the use of classroom interaction as a teaching approach by teachers in teaching English as First Additional Language to enhance learners’ communicative competence in schools, then it is assumed that the strategies selected would achieve the anticipated aim.
143
The early study of Holderness (1998:157) suggests that if we can consciously demonstrate ways of memorising, categorising, comparing, checking and enquiring about language structures and vocabulary items, the additional language learner will benefit enormously. Holderness further indicates that learners will soon emulate the helpful strategies demonstrated by their teacher, for instance, simplification of vocabulary; exaggeration of intonation and gestures; use of pictures, sketches or mime to clarify meaning; acceptance of incorrect phrases; provision of correct words as models; and encouragement to repeat new words.
Alternatively, Herrell and Jordan (2012:17) justify that English learners are most successful when they are supported by language that is contextualised (connected to real objects, visuals and actions); they are then able to see and experience the connection between new English vocabulary and their past experiences; they are involved in authentic learning situation, participating without fear and embarrassment, and given an opportunity to participate in classroom activities at their individual language levels.
The recent study results of Roof and Kreutter (2010:5) indicate that when the teacher gives learners more opportunities to respond during the lesson, the learners’ time- on-task, positive behaviour, and achievement increased. Roof and Kreutter further indicate that giving learners clear expectations and modelling and reinforcing these expectations may effectively influence behaviour in the classroom.
In short, the following strategies for learning and teaching fit in well with the criterion factor of constructivist environment/learner-centred learning. These strategies have been tested and if effectively implemented, they positively influence the learners’ learning.
4.5.1 Learning centres
Learning centres are places in the classroom where the learners can engage in hands-on activities that allow them to obtain additional experience in using new skills, expand skills usage to more closely match their individual needs, and work corporately with other students (Herrell & Jordan 2012:37). Learning centres are thus
144
especially effective for meeting the needs of English language learners and other learners who need expanded verbal interaction or hands-on practice to enhance their learning.
Indeed, the researcher has realised that learners like and eagerly learn in the learning or reading centre with colourful story books, junior encyclopaedias, and dictionaries, magazines and newspapers. In the researcher’s classroom, the centre was promoted with inviting phrases such as: let’s enjoy reading, knowledge is power, take one book and read, time to read, reading is awesome, let’s enrich our minds (cf. Chapter 8.6.3). As learners get used to the centre, during their spare time or after completion of their tasks, they visit the reading centre and take one book to read. As learners become skilled in using a dictionary for explanation of new words, then it becomes easier to construct their own perspective of learning. In actual fact, the idea of learning centres encourages classroom interaction as sometimes in pairs or group, learners select the one book to read and after reading they discuss the stories. In this way, learners’ communicative competence is enhanced as they discuss their understanding using the target language.
4.5.2 Scaffolding
Harr (2008:12) asserts that, though scaffolding can be described as a process of “incremental assistance”, it involves more than a logically sequenced lesson where a teacher paces learning tasks so that learners advance in small steps towards a learning goal. Harr further explains that scaffolding requires a contribution from both teacher and learner, which is often referred to as collaboration. At the same time, as the teacher collaborates with the learner, there is an opportunity for the teacher to identify gaps where the learners need scaffolding in order to reach their learning potential. There are various types of scaffolding but in this study the researcher briefly highlights verbal and visual scaffolding.
Wisener (2008:71) defines verbal scaffolding as the process by which someone interprets an event that is unfamiliar or beyond a learner’s ability in order to assist the learner in understanding that event. Wisener further provides examples of verbal scaffolding as the use of thinking aloud, paraphrasing, providing correct punctuation
145
by repeating learner’s responses, reinforcing definitions in context, slowing speech, speaking in phrases, and increasing pauses. So if learners are verbally assisted in their attempt to use the target language they will have confidence through practise and later become competent in their language usage.
Visual scaffolding, as delineated by Herrell and Jordan (2012:26), is an approach in which language used in instruction is made more understandable by the display of drawings or photographs that allow learners to hear English words and connect them to the visual images being displayed. To use this strategy, the teacher builds a file or visuals, such as photographs or drawings that can easily be accessed for teaching.
The classroom that practices an interaction approach can be identified by its inside appearance. It is covered in words, phrases and pictures. These teaching aids are not just randomly displayed. They are well sequenced so that learners can use them as a source for learning. The work displayed on the wall is not only done by the teacher but even the learners have to construct their own visuals to contribute to their learning. Overall, scaffolding is a learning strategy that supports classroom interaction among the teacher and the learners, learners and learners and also builds the learners’ confidence in learning on their own.
4.5.3 Scripting
The study of Lozanov (1982 cited by Herrell & Jordan 2012:37) affirms that scripting is a strategy that prepares English language learners with sample language interactions or situational dialogues appropriate for upcoming events. Moreover, these sample language interactions, called scripts, are presented and practiced prior to the learners encountering the situation in which the scripts will be needed. Hence, preparing and practicing scripts in advance of events is supportive of the learner because it lowers anxiety and builds confidence in the ability to communicate in English.
Generally, in role play, before learners can play their roles, they practice their lines for performance, although they are not limited to memorising the written scripts.
146
Therefore, the script is just there for guidance and learners are encouraged to paraphrase or construct their own ideas with which they are comfortable. Actually, scripting is usually practiced for debate and other activities that become more understandable when using role-play. As a consequence of the practice, learners’ confidence is boosted and their communicative competence is developed.
4.5.4 The use of posters
Generally, learners learn by seeing and touching. It is advisable for a teacher to have authentic materials prepared to let learners learn by seeing, touching, talking and by doing. In fact, Dam (1998:39) mentions that the use of posters are a way of keeping track with the ongoing learning process, keeping chaos at bay, and raising awareness. Additionally, posters also provide learners with visible authentic language.
4.5.5 The use of diaries
Diaries create a possibility of a personal record of what one is doing in one book, and keeping individual learner’s work (Dam 1998:40). In addition, diaries are useful for group work and pair work when distributing tasks and homework. But most importantly, Dam argues that the diary is a tool for awareness-raising and genuine, authentic language use. In this way, learners also practice to write down their self- reflections at an early stage. As verbal activities complement the writing activities, thus diaries lead learners to jot down the teacher’s feedback and their responses. Thus the strategies that initiate classroom interaction lead us to our South African reviewed curriculum known as CAPS.