The inventory of AfL techniques was based on data drawn from ROWDs and lesson observations. Eighteen AfL techniques were identified in all from both sources. The techniques were ordered from the most to the least commonly used one. Because the data came from 28 lesson observations and 448 lessons recorded on ROWDs (8 teachers x 56 lessons each), the following procedure was adopted to ensure the equal weighting of the sources:
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1. AfL techniques were identified and separate frequency counts based on ROWDs and lesson observations were created.
2. Within each of the data sources, the identified AfL techniques were ordered ranging from the most to the least frequently used one.
3. As eighteen AfL techniques were identified, points from ‘18 – most frequently occurring’ to ‘1- least frequently occurred’ were awarded to each list. Those techniques not found in a given data source were assigned 0 points. The scoring can be reviewed in Appendix 20.
4. Both lists of AfL techniques were combined by adding the points assigned to each technique and the results are collated in Table 4.2.
The field notes from lesson observations were scrutinised to identify the language skills and types of activities where AfL was used (Table 4.2, Column C) and the timing of implementation (Column D). Detailed descriptions of all AfL techniques used by the teachers in the study are provided in Appendix 18.
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Table 4.2: An inventory of AfL techniques
Column A.
Column B. Name of AfL technique
Column C. Types of tasks and skills the technique was used with
Column D. When it was used within a lesson. 1 Success Criteria (SC) Writing, Arts and crafts, Classroom instructions Before and during a task
2 Learning Partners (LP) Speaking; Vocabulary learning Throughout lessons and tasks; Often in preparation for learners to work independently 3
What are we learning today? - type questions (WALT)
Learning objectives for the lesson At the beginning of a lesson; Often referred to throughout the lesson 4 Traffic Lights (TL) Speaking; Vocabulary learning At the end of the lesson or a task; Sometimes followed directly by NST 5 Thumbs up or down
(THUD) Classroom instructions; Arts and crafts Throughout lessons; Often during and after giving instructions; 6 Two stars and a wish
(TSAW) Writing After an activity; Often when SC were used before the activity 7 Sharing a good and a bad
model (SGBM) Writing At the beginning of the lesson; Sometimes with reference to ICS or WALT 8 Smiley faces (SF) Writing; Speaking After a task; At the end of the lesson
9 ‘I can’ statements (ICS) Learning objectives for the lesson At the end of the lesson 10 Perfect Purple and red to
Remember (PPRR)
Grammar
Writing (often with grammar focus)
After an activity has been completed to be revisited by a student; Often followed by NST; Often recorded in notebooks
11 Next steps (NST) Writing; Vocabulary learning; Grammar Often after a different AfL technique; Most commonly after TL and PPRR
12 Colour coding (CC) Writing After an activity has been completed to be revisited by a student; Often followed by NST or combined with SC; Often recorded in notebooks
13 Find the Fib (FTF) Speaking; Vocabulary; Grammar After a new grammar rule or set of vocabulary has been introduced and practiced 14 Increased thinking time
(ITT) Speaking; Reading comprehension tasks Throughout lessons or activities; Often after asking a question 15 Star charts (SCH) Learning objectives for the lesson At the end of a lesson
16 Indicate mistakes without explanations (IMWE)
Grammar; Spelling; Writing; Reading
comprehension tasks Recorded in notebooks; While a task is being completed; Often with reference to ICS or SC 17 Sheriff's star (SST) Learning objectives for the lesson At the end of the lesson or an activity
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The data presented in Column C of Table 4.2 indicate that teachers were observed to use AfL largely for teaching productive skills: speaking and writing. There was also some indication in the data that AfL was used while teaching vocabulary and grammar, conducting arts and crafts activities or providing feedback on reading comprehension tasks. This finding suggests that AfL was helpful in teaching productive skills. It could be inferred that a possible reason for that finding is connected with a difference in the degree of scaffolding inherently provided by the task design of the productive and receptive activities. In the tasks aiming to develop receptive skills, especially listening (often implemented through songs or listening comprehension activities), the duration was determined by the task, not the learner. In the tasks aiming to develop productive skills, such as describing something, the learners were expected to use prompts to complete the task. Because of these considerations, it seems that productive tasks inherently offered less scaffolding. Hence, more support was needed from outside the task itself. The findings presented in this chapter suggested that AfL techniques could offer that type of support. T6 explained the use of AfL for writing tasks by saying:
‘it’s a really good way to make them focus on a few different things in their writing (...) and the students can then focus on just a few key things and get a good grade whereas before it was not up to standard and you just had to fail them based on that but then here you can actually say (1) well you did this this and this (1) this was what was the most important and that’s why they got a bad grade and they understand that and I think that’s good that’s probably the most positive thing’ (T6/INT)
The above quote confirms that AfL techniques were believed to provide support for completing writing tasks by indicating what constituted good performance. This has clear implications for understanding AfL in the TEYL context. Namely, by specifying the criteria for success, teachers were able to focus their feedback on specific areas which were considered important within that task. The finding that AfL was used largely for teaching productive skills supports teacher beliefs that AfL helped to develop learner independence in sustaining a task at hand, as reported in Part One of the current chapter.