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It is believed the similarities between the royal autobiography in the book of Ecclesiastes and royal autobiographies in the Egyptian wisdom literature are so significant that they suggest certain ancient Egyptian literary influence on this biblical book.136 In order to examine possible parallels in genre between Qoheleth’s

autobiographical narration and Egyptian royal autobiographies, this section will first consider Egyptian Royal Instructions and then proceed to survey Egyptian Royal Testaments.

134 _{Martin A. Shields, “Qohelet and Royal Autobiography,” in The Words of The Wise are like}

Goads: Engaging Qohelet in the 21st Century (eds. Mark J. Boda, Tremper Longman, III and Cristian

G. Rata; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2013), 117-36 (125).

135 _{Fredericks disagrees with attempts to align Qoheleth’s autobiography with ancient Near}

Eastern fictional autobiographies, because such parallels overemphasize the extra-biblical material and underestimates biblical parallels. See Fredericks and Estes, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs, 56.

136

Leonidas Kalugila, The Wise King: Studies in Royal Wisdom as Divine Revelation in the Old Testament and Its Environment (CB OTS 15; Stockholm: CWK Gleerup, 1980), 117-22. See also Gordis, Koheleth, 57. See also Perdue, Wisdom and Creation, 198-203.

The corpus of the Egyptian wisdom literature texts which exhibit similarities with the book of Ecclesiastes is Egyptian Royal Instructions.137 The Egyptian Royal Instructions, which contain didactic texts, are written as first-person narratives in the name of a king. They are pseudepigraphic and fictional in view of their exaggerated descriptions of kings.138 The authors of Egyptian Royal Instructions are concerned with presenting themselves as all-powerful and all-knowing monarchs. Such position enables them to represent the ideological centre of the universe and share their wisdom not just with their immediate subjects, but with humanity in general.139 As a result King Amenemhet I speaks of himself in terms superior to others:140

No one equalled me as a doer of deeds. I journeyed to Yebu, I returned to Delta... I was grain-maker, beloved by Nepri... None hungered in my years...

I had assigned everything to its place... I built myself a house decked with gold... Made for eternity, prepared for all time... I have made the past and arranged the future...

As one examines the autobiographical features of the book of Ecclesiastes, it becomes apparent that Qoheleth finds it essential to establish himself as king (Eccl 1:1, 12), and his allusions to Solomon are unmistakable (Eccl 2:4–9). Enumerating Solomon’s deeds and alluding to his great wisdom allow Qoheleth to share his words with his audience in hope that they would listen to the great king.

Other similarities between the Egyptian Royal Instructions and the book of Ecclesiastes include the personal tone of the literary work and the description of the audience.141 Qoheleth addresses his reader as rwxb “a youth” in Eccl 11:9 and calls him ynb “my child” in Eccl 12:12. In The Instruction of Vizier Ptah-hotep the old vizier Ptah-hotep offers counsel to his son, whom he calls “my child,” on a large

137 _{Koh, Royal Autobiography, 126-40.}

138 _{Considering the texts of the Instruction of King Merikare and the Instruction of Amenemhet}

I, Lichtheim argues that they are “pseudepigraphic as far as authorship is concerned but genuine as a work contemporary with the events to which it refers.” See Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings (Vol. I; Berkley: University of California Press, 2006), 9. See also Miriam Lightheim, “Merikare,” (COS 1.35: 61-66 [61]). Parkingson suggests that it is quite possible that the existing work has rewritten a much older text describing a historical event and used a certain measure of creativity and freedom in doing so. See R. B. Parkinson, “Types of Literature in the Middle Kingdom,” in Ancient Egyptian Literature: History and Forms (ed. A. Loprieno; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 297-312 (311).

139

Koh, Royal Autobiography, 126-28.

140 _{“The Instruction of King Amenemhet I for His Son Sesostris I,” (AEL I: 136-38).} 141 _{Seow, Ecclesiastes, 60.}

variety of topics.142 Among his recommendations one finds an admonition to enjoy one’s life, “Follow your heart as long as you live.”143

Qoheleth offers a similar exhortation, “follow the ways of your heart and the desire of your eyes” (Eccl 11:9). This text presents a description of the old age144 that finds parallels in the final poem in the book of Ecclesiastes (Eccl 12:3–6). The vizier also instructs his son how to act in the time of political unrest and stay away from injustice.145 Qoheleth speaks to such situations and points out the advantage of wisdom over the social status of a king.146

These Royal Instructions do not pertain only to the duties of a monarch, but also offer a more general advice on wise and successful living.147 In The Instructions of King Merikare the king touches upon the issues of prudent speech and foolish behaviour; on acquisition and preservation of knowledge; and even on carrying out building projects.148 Similar themes can be found in the book of Ecclesiastes which mentions the value of wisdom and knowledge,149 sensible behaviour and speech,150 and economic enterprises.151 The words of Qoheleth are framed by his self-

introduction (Eccl 1:1) and an exhortation to obey and follow the words of the wise in the epilogue (Eccl 12:9–14) in a fashion similar to the style of the Egyptian Royal Instructions. Thus, the Instructions of Ptah-Hotep begins with the vizier self-

142 _{“The Instruction of the Vizier Ptah-hotep,” translated by John A. Wilson (ANE, 343-46).} 143

“Teaching of Ptah-hotep,” (“Digital Egypt for Universities”; n.p. [cited: April 25, 2011; Online: http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/literature/ptahhotep.html], 14.7.9-10).

144 _{“Old age has struck, age has descended. Feebleness has arrived, weakness is here again.}

Sleep is upon him in discomfort all day. Eyes are grown small, ears deaf. Mouth silent, unable to speak. Heart emptied, unable to recall yesterday. Bones ache his whole length. Goodness has turned to evil. All taste is gone. What old age does to people is evil in every way. Nose is blocked, unable to breathe, how old (it feels) standing or sitting.” See “Teaching of Ptah-hotep,” (“Digital Egypt for Universities,” 1.4.1-5.1). A very similar sentiment is found in the Late Period Egyptian Papyrus Insinger: “He who has passed sixty years, everything has passed for him./ If his heart loves wine, he cannot drink to drunkenness./If he desires food, he cannot eat as he used it. If his heart desires a woman, her moment does not come.” See “The Instruction of Papyrus Insinger,” (AEL 3: 184-217 (199).

145 _{“If thou art a leader commanding the affairs of the multitude, seek out for thyself every}

beneficial deed, until it may be that thy (own) affairs are without wrong. Justice is great and its appropriateness is lasting...Wrongdoing has never brought its undertaking into port. (It may be that) it is fraud that gains riches, (but) the strength of justice is that it lasts...” See “The Instruction of the Vizier Ptah-hotep,” (ANE, 343).

146

Cf. Eccl 4:1, 13–16; 5:8–9; 9:13–15; 10:5–7; 16–17, 20.

147 _{Ptah-hotep instructs his son on the matters of intimacy with a woman/wife; proper attitude}

to the poor and the rich alike; leadership and friendship, and obedience and respect of one’s father. See “The Instruction of the Vizier Ptah-hotep,” (ANE, 343-46). See also B. W. Jones, “From Gilgamesh to Qoheleth,” in The Bible in the Light of Cuneiform Literature: Scripture in Context III (ed. W. W. Hallo, B. W. Jones, and G. L. Mattingly: ANETS, 8; Lewiston: Mellen, 1990), 349-79.

148 _{“The Instruction of King Merikare,” (“Ancient Egyptian Texts”; n.p. [cited: April 26,}

2011; Online: http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/merikare_papyrus.htm]).

149

Cf. Eccl 2:13–14; 9:17–18; 10:1–3.

150 _{Cf. Eccl 5:1–7; 10:12–14.} 151 _{Cf. Eccl 11:1–6.}

introduction, “The teaching of the Overseer of the City and Vizier Ptah-hotep” and concludes with his admonitions for his son to follow his advice, “Do as your master has said for you...”152

The survey of the Egyptian Royal Instruction has identified a number of significant thematic parallels between the Egyptian Royal Instructions and the work of Qoheleth including the presence of social turmoil, wise living and admonitions to enjoy life. Moreover, the framing technique and a predominantly first-person

narration make the Egyptian influence on the book of Ecclesiastes seem likely. After having discussed the Egyptian Royal Istructions, it is necessary to look at the

Egyptian Royal Testaments and the possible affinities between these texts and the book of Ecclesiastes.

The book of Ecclesiastes is often compared to Egyptian Royal Testaments. Von Rad finds similarities between the book of Ecclesiastes and this literary

corpus.153These texts were composed to reflect a change in government or the demise of a king and to insure that the successor had the right to power. A new king would proclaim himself as chosen by the gods and advocate his new rule as superior to his predecessor.154 Perdue argues that Egyptian Royal Testaments were written as autobiographies of the deceased kings, who offered their advice and teachings on a variety of topics to the visitors of their graves. In line with this genre, Qoheleth, a voice of a dead Solomon, shares his life story from the tomb to justify his position and experience to the future generations as meaningful and possessing value which goes beyond his own finitude.155 In identifying the similarities between Qoheleth’s speech and Egyptian Royal Testaments, Perdue points to the first-person narration of a king (Eccl 1:12–2:26), fretfulness about death and the existence of the dead (Eccl 9:1–6), and emphasis on enjoying one’s life (cf. Eccl 2:24–26; 5:17–19 [Eng. 18–20]).156

However, Koh has convincingly shown that the perfective verb ytyyh which Qoheleth uses to introduce himself should be interpreted as “has become” rather than

152 _{“Teaching of Ptah-hotep,” (“Digital Egypt for Universities,” 1.4.1, 47.9.3). See also Koh,}

Royal Autobiography in the Book of Qoheleth, 130-32.

153 _{Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, 226.} 154

Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, 226. See also Joseph Blenkinsopp, Sage, Priest, Prophet: Religious and Intellectual Leadership in Ancient Israel (Library of Ancient Israel, ed. Douglas A. Knight; Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995), 59.

155 _{See Leo G. Perdue, “‘I Will Make a Test of Pleasure’: The Tyranny of God and Qoheleth’s}

Quest for the Good,” in Wisdom and Creation: The Theology of Wisdom Literature (Eugene: WIPF & Stock, 1994), 193-242 (202).

“was” to indicate that his rule has started in the past, yet is still going on at the time of writing.157It is not necessary to understand Qoheleth’s words as the advice of the dead king reaching out to posterity from his grave. Also the political motif present in the Egyptian Royal Testaments is absent in the book of Ecclesiastes. There is no indication that Qoheleth’s intent is to claim his kingship or to introduce a new ruling policy. Therefore, a suggestion about the similarities between the book of Ecclesiastes and Egyptian Royal Testaments is not convincing.

While Egyptian Royal Instructions and Egyptian Royal Testaments employ the genre of royal autobiography, Egyptian Royal Instructions share several thematic affinities as well as literary features with the book of Ecclesiastes. However, a general similitude of thoughts and the use of literary devices are not enough to prove

sufficiently any dependency of Qoheleth’s work on this body of texts.158

Moreover, Egyptian wisdom literature does not shed much light on the aim and purpose of the royal autobiography in the book of Ecclesiastes. The common characteristics of Qoheleth’s autobiography and West Semitic royal autobiographies make it necessary to consider them next.