Riesgo Ordinario Tipo 3

Some consider that cross-disciplinary collaboration is a social activity of collective learning and knowledge building (Conklin, 2005; Fiore et al., 2010; Inkpen, 1996; Russell et al., 2008) that operates like a social system (Bammer, 2006; Pennington, 2008). In line with this understanding, the different types of cross-disciplinarity can be considered to be phases in the development of this cross-disciplinary system. For example, social systems theory considers that new social systems, such as a cross- disciplinary system, develop in a three-phase process. This three-phase process involves smaller entities, such as disciplines or individuals, working together (Moeller, 2011) as shown in Figure 1.5.

In the first phase the social systems or individuals remain separate entities that work on their own aspects of the issue but are shaped by each other as they share the environment created by the joint project. Then as the social systems or individuals interact the boundaries between them become semi-permeable and blurred. Finally the Figure 1.4. Levels of integration in the different types of cross-disciplinarity.

Cross-disciplinary Cooperation

Cross-disciplinary Collaboration

Multidisciplinarity Interdisciplinarity Transdisciplinarity Increasing levels of integration

Integration of findings Integration of goals and methods

Integration of conceptual understanding

boundaries are transcended and a new social system with its own collective identity develops (Moeller, 2011). As shown in Figure 1.5, the first phase of this process aligns with the description of multidisciplinarity or cross-disciplinary cooperation where the disciplines or individuals from different disciplines remain separate entities but are influenced by the joint environment or project that they are working on. The second phase aligns with interdisciplinarity where the disciplines or individuals from the

different disciplines interact and the boundaries between them become blurred, and the third phase aligns with transdisciplinarity where the boundaries are transcended and a new collective identity is formed. The cross-disciplinary system can, therefore, be said to include all three types of cross-disciplinarity in its stages of development with the second and third phases aligning with cross-disciplinary collaboration as defined earlier. Cross-disciplinary projects may purposefully work at the multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary stage or aim to work at the transdisciplinary level. The speed of movement from one phase of development may differ and indeed some projects may stall at either the multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary phase despite planning to move to the transdisciplinary phase.

The cross-disciplinary system that develops, like all social systems, consists of a matrix of different layers (Bammer, 2006; Holden, 2005; Hudson, 2000). The layers in the cross-disciplinary system are the individuals in the cross-disciplinary group, the disciplinary collectives and the cross-disciplinary collective. These different layers are continually co-constructing each other as they interact within the system (Mingers, 2004a). Co-construction in this sense means that systems, such as cross-disciplinary systems, are not completely constructed by individuals and individuals are not

Multidisciplinarity Interdisciplinarity Transdisciplnarity

completely constructed by the system but have a degree of objectivity at any given time (Bhaskar, 1979). This understanding of the collaborative process means that the individuals and disciplines retain their agency and ability to act as separate entities while still being part of the collective (Kahn, Qualter, & Young, 2012; Luckett & Luckett, 2009). In other words, individuals and/or disciplinary collectives still develop their own understanding based on their disciplinary/paradigmatic perspective of the complex real-world issue at the same time as contributing their specialised knowledge to the collective thus providing resources for the collective understanding. It is also

considered that this co-construction process is highly context dependent (Bromme, 2000; Hollingsworth & Hollingsworth, 2000; Loi & Dillon, 2006) and influenced by collaborative processes and activities and the collaborative environment (physical, social, cultural and intellectual) (Loi & Dillon, 2006; Pennington, 2008; Russell et al., 2008; Stokols, Mizra, Hall, Taylor, & Moser, 2008).

In summary, academic disciplines are social systems with their own identities and ways of working. Individuals within those disciplines have unique often mutiple perspectives that have been shaped by their education in those disciplines as well as by their culture, gender, ethnicity, age, religious affiliations and life experiences. It is these multiple perspectives that they bring to cross-disciplinary studies. Cross-disciplinary refers to anything that involves more than one discipline and cross-disciplinarity is an umbrella term that includes cross-disciplinary cooperation and cross-disciplinary collaboration. Cross-disciplinary cooperation aligns with multidisciplinarity and is a non- integrative form of cross-disciplinary study where disciplines work on separate parts of a common project. Cross-disciplinary collaboration is an integrative form of cross- disciplinary study where individuals from different disciplines work together to develop a mutual understanding of a complex real-world issue. Cross-disciplinary collaboration aligns with both interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity with transdisciplinarity

involving higher levels of integration and the development of a separate collective identity. Multidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity are also phases in the development of a cross-disciplinary system. This cross-disciplinary system involves an interactive matrix of layers and elements. The layers in the cross-disciplinary

system are the individuals in the cross-disciplinary group, the disciplinary collectives and the cross-disciplinary collective. The elements in the system are the collaborative processes and activities that occur between the different layers and the collaborative environment (physical, social, cultural and intellectual) in which the cross-disciplinary study takes place. Consequently, in order to promote cross-disciplinary collaboration when studying complex real-world issues the approach designed in this study needs to

carefully plan the activities and environment in order to help facilitate the co-

construction process. Chapter two will consider the co-construction process and the activities and collaborative environments that hinder and promote it, as well as ways that cross-disciplinary approaches can be evaluated.

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1.6 Organisation of the Thesis

The thesis is divided into four sections. Section one, setting the scene, includes three chapters. Chapter one includes an introduction to the study, justification of the study, the research aim and questions, reasons for the choice of topic, background and key concepts that relate to cross-disciplinary collaboration, and the organisation of the thesis. Chapter two is the literature review and considers the co-construction process and the factors that hinder and promote cross-disciplinary collaboration and how it can be evaluated. Chapter three provides a background to the case study from the New Zealand disability field. It includes a consideration of concepts of inclusion and exclusion, the polices and guidelines that help to promote inclusion in New Zealand, and the disciplines and paradigms of disability that may be held by those in a cross- disciplinary group drawn together to discuss it.

Section two, methodology and methods, includes four chapters. Chapter four provides an outline of the methodology of the study including philosophical considerations, and an overview of design-based research including the methodological framework used to guide the study. Chapter five discusses how the design was undertaken and then outlines the cross-disciplinary approach designed in this study. Chapter six details how the approach was implemented in the study including the ethical considerations, information on the participants and the recruitment process, and details of the approach and methods used. Chapter seven outlines the evaluation process used in this study including the data collection and analysis methods.

Section three, the research findings, includes two chapters. Chapter eight considers whether or not cross-disciplinary collaboration was promoted in the study and the factors that hindered or had the potential to hinder it. Chapter nine then considers how the different phases of the approach performed in this study.

Section four, the discussion and conclusion, includes two chapters. Chapter ten discusses how the findings of the study relate to the literature and the research questions. Chapter eleven considers the rigour of the study, draws conclusions from the study, makes recommendations as to how the approach could be refined and used,

considers how the findings may contribute to the field of study, reflects on the implications of the study, identifies areas for further research and considers the limitations of the study.

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1.7 Summary of Research Questions and Chapters

This study uses design-based research methodology to develop, implement and evaluate a cross-disciplinary approach to promote cross-disciplinary collaboration when working with complex real-world issues. The study has two main components. The first component involves the development of a cross-disciplinary approach to promote cross-disciplinary collaboration when studying complex real-world issues. This component involves:

a) considering the literature on cross-disciplinary collaboration and the factors that promote and hinder it in line with the first research question;

b) designing an approach to promote cross-disciplinary collaboration based on the literature in line with the third research question:

c) considering what changes need to be made to the approach in light of the study in line with the sixth research question, and;

d) identifying what further understanding of cross-disciplinary collaboration has been gleaned from the study that could inform further cross-disciplinary approaches in line with the seventh research question.

The second component relates to the evaluation of the approach designed in this study. This component involves:

a) considering the methods suggested in the literature to evaluate cross-disciplinary studies in line with the second research question;

b) developing an evaluation process based on the literature in line with the fourth research question, and;

c) using this evaluation process to consider the effectiveness of the designed approach to promote cross-disciplinary collaboration in line with the fifth research question.