One of the fundamental issues that appears to have remained unaddressed over the past decade is the fact that women are under-represented as policy makers (Thas, et al., 2007; Chowdhury and Khanam, 2005; Jorge, 2002, 2000a; Marcelle, 2000b). This is highly problematic, as “the participation of women and individuals with expertise in gender issues is essential at all stages of the ICT policy elaboration process, so that the gender dimensions of policy areas can be identified and addressed” (Primo, 2003:67). Labelle (2005) and Marcelle (2000a) echo this point, and suggest that a diverse range of women should be engaged in the process. Nonetheless, the empirical data to support this is missing, and so this is something that my research will address. In addition,
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Wangmo et al. (2004:76) argue that “in ICT policy, there is no special provision for women who are underprivileged in reaping benefits from the existing policy intervention because of their systematic subordination”.
Primo (2003) raises this issue in her report, published by UNESCO, on gender issues in the information society, paying particular attention to women’s absence from decision making structures and suggesting that women are “underrepresented in all decision making structures, including policy and regulatory institutions, ministries responsible for ICTs and boards and the senior management of private ICT companies” (Primo, 2003:55), which leads to gender issues not being addressed. Moreover, in a study conducted in Bangladesh which focused on incorporating gender issues into ICT policy making, Chowdhury and Khanam (2005:8) note that since policy making is “heavily dominated by males”, this imbalance causes “many gender-sensitive issues” to be relegated to “the sidelines”. Likewise, in a study conducted in Oman that highlights the same dangers, Elnaggar (2007:11) suggests that policy makers should take into account “the needs, aspirations, and constraints of women in the Omani society”. This point is reflected in research examining the capacities of Ethiopian civil society and perfectly illustrates the influence of ICT policies, it being noted that “women were not part of the design, implementation and evaluation of information and communication technology policy and projects in Ethiopia” (Adam, 2002:13). It is further asserted that women are “grossly under-represented in the ICT policy formulation process; all those that drafted the policy document were men” (see also Gurumurthy, 2006, 2004; and Jorge, 2002). Nevertheless, there is very little literature and data available to demonstrate the degree to which women are actually involved in ICT policy formulation in Muslim countries and the factors that contribute to their exclusion from it. Unfortunately, four years after Primo’s (2003) report, the same situation was reported by UNDP-APDIP, Thas et al. (2007:5) also noting that at the “macro-political level, most government bodies are dominated by men”. The consequences of this disparity are believed often to render ICT policy ineffective at creating an inclusive environment or addressing the specific needs of women (Thas et al., 2007; Elnaggar, 2007; Lal 2006; Wanasundera, 2006; Wangmo et
al., 2004; Primo, 2003; Jorge, 2002).As Chowdhury and Khanam (2005) have argued,
women need to be involved in policy making to ensure that their needs are addressed. My research will examine women’s involvement in the ICT policy formulation process and the subsequent influence on the policies’ sensitivity towards women. This will provide critical empirical data, contributing to the current debate that women need to be policy makers in order to ensure that ICT policies adequately address their needs (Chowdhury and Khanum, 2005).
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2.4.2.1
Consultative Process for Policy Formulation
Labelle (2005) and Wangmo et al. (2004) both suggest that if ICT policies are designed to cater to women, it would stand to reason that women’s groups, ministries, civil society, activists and NGOs would be consulted as part of the policy design and review process, since they would have first-hand knowledge of relevant subject-matter. However, as the earlier debates in this chapter have identified, this is not a simple task: women have diverse needs and requirements (see Marcelle, 2000a). This is underscored by Jorge (2002:13) in the context of the challenges and practical strategies for the use of ICTs for women’s economic empowerment, and who also stresses the importance of engaging women’s organisations in the ICT policy formulation process, noting that with “access and cost being some of the greatest barriers for ICT use”, it is critical to engage women in the consultation and policy making processes to ensure that policies are effective.
Labelle (2005:30) also stresses the need for special “steps to be taken to ensure that consultation is representative and that marginalised groups, such as women, poor, rural dwellers, youth and the handicapped are included”. Such a consultative process with gender experts and advocates would ensure that their needs were understood and incorporated, not only into the policy design but also the implementation process (Wanasundera, 2006). This linkage and integration into other policies and organisations was seen as a critical success factor to ensuring not only effective implementation but also sustainability for maintaining gender inclusion in the information society in multiple dimensions (Thas et al., 2007; Labelle, 2005; Jorge, 2002; Marcelle, 2000a). Nevertheless, there is very little empirical data that verifies the impact that the consultative process has on the extent to which ICT policies are sensitive to the ground realities that women face when engaging with ICTs. The findings of my study will substantiate whether the cumulative process is effective in the context of influencing references to women and sensitivity to barriers faced by women. In addition, the findings will also highlight and identify the most effective formulation process for effective policy formulation.
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