60 Schlingloff 2000: i. 435-441, No.77/XVII, 21, 1 Dhanapāla.
61 For relevant representations at other sites (e.g., Goli, Mathurā, Sarnath, Sañchi and Bihar) and a
comparison with the Ajaṇṭan paintings, see ibid.: 438-441.
62 Knox (1992) suggests that a sculpture from a railing crossbar dating to the second century CE (ibid.:
82-83, No.26 [inner face]) and another one from a drum slab dating to the third century CE (ibid.: 136, No.70) could be related to this story. But neither sculpture contains an explicit reference to Ajātaśatru.
In contrast to the scarcity of archeological sources, Buddhist literary sources related to Ajātaśatru exist in great abundance. There is not just a single story of Ajātaśatru found in Buddhist literature. Instead, there are at least four major cycles of stories, centering on different events in his life or different aspects of his personality:
Cycle I: Stories related to his patricide (including his previous life, his birth, his support for the schismatic Devadatta, and the murder of his father Bimbisāra);
Cycle II: Stories related to his transformation and salvation (including his repentance for the patricide, his visit to the Buddha or encounter with a deputy of the Buddha [for instance, the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī or Lokeśvara63], his future
rebirths and final liberation);
Cycle III: Stories about his political role as an influential Indian king (including his wars with King Prasenajit, his campaign
63 According to the 28th chapter of the Kalpadrumāvadānamālā (KDAM), “Garland of Avadānas of
the Wish-fulfilling Tree”, the Buddha sends the Bodhisattva Lokeśvara [= Avalokiteśvara] to save the repentant Ajātaśatru who, under Lokeśvara’s guidance, performs the upo+adha and takes refuge in the Three Jewels (see a summary in Mitra 1882: 303; Mitra’s summary is based on the Sanskrit manuscript of the KDAM preserved in the Library of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta). According to Feer (1879: 304) and Filliozat (1941: 14, Nos. 26-27), the Sanskrit manuscript of the KDAM in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BnF) gives Ajātaśatruparidāpitāvadāna, “Story of the Converted Ajātaśatru”, as the title of this chapter. This title is reproduced in Matsunami (1965: 231), according to whom the manuscript of the KDAM in the Tōkyō University Library only covers five chapters (ibid.: 33), not including the present one. According to my investigation, the Sanskrit manuscript (Add. 1590, 261a2- 269a8; Bendall 1883: 131) in the Cambridge University Library gives the title Ajātaśatruparibodhita- avadāna (269a7-8), “Story of the Illuminated Ajātaśatru”. I am very grateful to Dr. Vincenzo Vergiani for allowing me to access the Cambridge manuscript and to Dr. Camillo Formigatti for helping me with reading the manuscript. In this study I use the title Ajātaśatruparibodhitāvadāna (AŚBA). The AŚBA seems to be a local (mediaeval Nepalese) production motivated by a cult of the Bodhisattva Amoghapāśa Lokeśvara. On the close association of Amoghapāśa Lokeśvara with the upo+adha observance (vrata) in Newar Buddhism (see Locke 1980: 203-4; 1987; Gellner 1992 [esp. 127-8]; Tuladhar-Douglas 2006: 149-187). Regarding the date of the KDMA, while in his Bukkyō setsuwa kenkyū josetsu Iwamoto Yutaka places its compilation around the third century CE (see Okano Kiyoshi’s website http:// homepage3. nifty.com/indology/kalpadrumavadana.html; I have no access to Iwamoto’s book for the moment), more scholars agree that the KDMA, along with other extant avadānamālās, belong to the mediaeval Nepalese Sanskrit Buddhist literature (see Speyer 1902-1909: ii. xxxvi; Tatelman 2000: 10; Tuladhar-Douglas 2006: 39). The AŚBA certainly deserves a specific and detailed treatment elsewhere.
against the Vṛjis, his construction of Pāṭaliputra, etc.); Cycle IV: Stories about his special relationship to the Buddhist
Community (including his erection of a stūpa over one portion of the Buddha’s bodily relics64, his patronage of the First Buddhist Council, his good relations with the Buddha’s great disciples [for instance, Mahākāśyapa and Ānanda], etc.)
My classification of Ajātaśatru stories into four narrative cycles is inspired by Alfred Foucher’s study of the Buddha’s biography. In his masterpiece La Vie du Bouddha, Foucher categorizes the Buddha’s life stories into several narrative cycles around different pilgrimage sites, for instance, the cycle of Kapilavastu (comprising stories of the Buddha’s birth and youth), the cycle of Magadha (concerning his quest and enlightenment), the cycle of Benares (concerning his first sermon and conversions), and the cycles of four secondary pilgrimage sites (Sāṃkāśya, Śrāvastī, Rājagṛha and Vaiśālī) regarding events taking place between the Buddha’s first sermon and the final days leading up to his parinirvāa.65 In a way similar to Foucher’s categorization of the life stories of the Buddha according to their relations to certain places, we may consider the stories of Ajātaśatru according to their relations to certain dimensions of his personality. The afore-mentioned four narrative cycles may be seen as separately centering on his identities as a criminal (patricide-regicide), as a repenter seeking for
64 There is a subcycle of stories particularly concerning Ajātaśatru’s special relationship to the Buddha
after his “conversion”, including, inter alia, his emotional reaction towards the Buddha’s parinirvāa (see Rockhill 1884:141-2; Obermiller 1931-1932: ii. 62; Waldschmidt 1944-1948: ii. 252-4; Sadakata 1984: 167-171; Klimkeit 1990: 149-150; Strong 2004: 118), his claiming of one share of the Buddha’s bodily relics and his erection of the stūpa (see Rockhill 1884: 145-6; Waldschmidt 1944-1948: i. 314f.; Strong 2004: 118-9, 121-2; Deeg 2005: 406-7, 551).
65 According to Foucher (1987 [1949]: 295-323), following these four cycles, there is a final cycle of
“le quartième grand pèlerinage” associated not with one place, but with the whole itinerary of the Buddha’s last journey from Rājagṛha to Kuśinagarī, and with his parinirvāa at Kuśinagarī, the funeral, as well as distribution of relics.
salvation, as a political leader of Magadha, and as a royal upāsaka. While Ajātaśatru’s role as an upāsaka is featured in both the narrative cycle of his salvation (i.e., Cycle II) and the cycle of his relationship to the Buddhist Community (i.e., Cycle IV), it is clear that the two cycles have rather different focuses: in Cycle II, the focus is on his trans- formation from an ānantarya criminal into an upāsaka and/or his future attainment of liberation66, whereas in Cycle IV, the focus is on his activities as a royal upāsaka which have no direct relevance to his patricide or remorse, including his sponsorship, merit-making (for instance, building a stūpa over the Buddha’s bodily relics) and his personal connections with the Buddha’s great disciples.
The present study mainly concerns the narrative cycle of Ajātaśatru’s
salvation. Within this cycle, we may further identify five subcycles, among which the first three subcycles relate to Ajātaśatru’s “conversion” or transformation into an upāsaka, while the latter two subcycles relate not to (or not only to) his transformation, but to his future rebirths and ultimate liberation. The chart below provides an overview of the five subcycles and relevant textual sources as far as I could identify them:
Table 1.1 The Narrative Cycle of the Salvation of Ajātaśatru in Indian Buddhist Literature
Ajātaśatru’s Repentance and His Conversion by the Buddha: The Frame Story of Ajātaśatru’s Visit to the Buddha in the Śrāmayaphala-sūtra (SPS) Textual Family 1 The Pāli Sāmaññaphala-sutta
2 The Paccuppanna-vatthu, “Story of the Present”, of the Pāli Sañjīva-jātaka (No.150) 3 The Paccuppanna-vatthu of the Pāli Sa kiccha-jātaka (No.530)
4 One part of the Sa ghabheda-vastu, “Section on Schism”, of the Mūlasarvāstivāda- vinaya (MSV) in Sanskrit and Tibetan versions
Subcycle One
5 The Chinese Jizhiguo-jing寂志果經, “Sūtra of the Fruits of Being a Tranquil-Minded One” (T.22)
66 There are several stories in which Ajātaśatru’s transformation into an upāsaka or his eventual
liberation was unrelated to his repentance for the patricide (see below “Subcycle Three” and T.509 in “Subcycle Five”).
6 The Shamenguo-jing沙門果經, “Sūtra on the Fruits of Śramaṇas”, in the Chinese translation of the Dīrghāgama (T.1 [20])
7 An untitled sūtra in the Chinese translation of the Ekottarikāgama (T.125 [43.7]) Ajātaśatru’s Repentance and His Conversion by Someone Other than the Buddha 1
By the Bodhisattva Lokeśvara: the twenty-eighth chapter of the KDAM, titled Ajātaśatruparibodhitāvadāna (AŚBA), “Story of the Illuminated Ajātaśatru”
Ajātaśatru is afflicted with leprosy and repents of his crime. Under Lokeśvara’s guidance, he faithfully performs the upo+adha fast and takes refuge in the Three Jewels.67
2
By a Buddhist monk: Gopadatta’s *Ajātaśatrvavadāna (AŚA), “Story of Ajātaśatru”68, possibly corresponding to the former part of the twentieth chapter
(Śrīmatyavadāna, “Story of Śrīmatī”) of the KDAM69
While hunting an elephant, Ajātaśatru meets a Buddhist monk who, through conversing with him, arouses his remorse for the patricide and then advises him to take refuge in the Buddha.
Subcycle Two
3
By a kulaputra: the twenty-fifth chapter of T.193 (a Chinese translation [?] of *Buddhacarita traditionally attributed to the Chinese monk Baoyun寶雲)70
A kulaputra, who supports the Buddha and opposes Devadatta, arouses Ajātaśatru’s remorse for his patricide and his earlier acts against the Buddha, and thereby brought about his faith. No parallel to this story has been identified in Sanskrit, Pāli or Tibetan sources so far.
67 See above n. 63.
68 According to Hahn (1992: 17), “the Ajātaśatru legend [i.e., the AŚA] was accessible only in the form
of Rāhula Sāṃkṛtyāyana’s transcript of a fragmentary Sanskrit manuscript found in Tibet. The manuscript consists of five leaves, but since the final part of the story is missing neither the author nor the title of the legend is given.” Hahn (1981: 242-276) provides a revised edition of the AŚA based on Rāhula Sāṃkṛtyāyana’s transcript and other relevant sources. For the authorship attribution, the title reconstruction and a detailed analysis of the structural and poetical features of this text, see (ibid.: 242- 256). No complete translation of the AŚA has been published so far. On the date of Gopadatta (ca. 400/ 450-800 AD), see Hahn (1992: 28).
69 According to Mitra’s summary (1882: 300), the former part of Śrīmatyavadāna of the KDAM tells
that Ajātaśatru “received salutary instruction from a Śramaṇa”while hunting in a forest and “touched thereby, repairing to the Lord Śākya Sinha, repented of his sins, performed the purifying fast of Poṣadha, and became a follower of the Buddha”. I have not checked any manuscript edition of this story and it is unclear the extent to which Mitra’s summary is reliable. Prof. Hahn kindly pointed it out to me that “[s]ince the KDAM belongs to the (late) genre of Avadānamālās, it cannot have been the source of Gopadatta’s story. It must have been the other way round, because the late Avadānamālās have preserved several legends from the lost Jātakamālā by Gopadatta” (Email 23 May 2012). The Śrīmatyavadāna of the KDAM consists of three episodes separately related to the conversion of Ajātaśatru, his murder of Bimbisāra, and his killing of his servant-maid Śrīmatī. For a brief comparison of the third episode with its counterpart in the Avadānaśataka (namely, the fifty-fourth chapter under the same title Śrīmatyavadāna), see Feer (1979 [1891]: 212-213).
70 The traditional ascription of the Fo-benxing-jing in seven fascicles (T.193) to Baoyun (376–449CE)
is problematic. In his catalogue Chu-sanzang-jiji compiled in 515 CE—usually considered a very credible source—Sengyou mentions a Fo-benxing-jing in five fascicles among anonymous scriptures (T.2145. 21c12). According to Willemen (2009: xv), “Higata [sic!] Ryūshō thinks that this text was written shortly after Zhi Qian (third century) but before Kumārajīva (344–413?)”. See also Gotō (2007: 982- 978), who suggests Dharmarakṣa as the translator of T.193 based on its terminological features.
4
By the Buddha’s disciple Maudgalyāyana: the twenty-seventh chapter of T.193
Having heard Maudgalyāyana’s description of Devadatta’s suffering in hell, Ajātaśatru is terrified, repents of his evil deeds, and then invites the Buddha to the palace for a meal. No parallel to this story has been identified in Sanskrit, Pāli or Tibetan sources so far.
Stories of the Conversion of Ajātaśatru Unrelated to His Repentance for the Patricide
1
The sixteenth chapter (Pañcavār+ikāvadāna, “Story of the Quinquennial Festival”) of the Avadānaśataka [Avś]71, corresponding to the twenty-fourth chapter (Dharma- buddhin-pāvadāna, “Story of the King Dharmabuddhi”72) of the KDAM
Ajātaśatru, at Devadatta’s instigation, prohibits people in Rājagṛha from making offerings to the Buddha. Later on seeing Śakra worship the Buddha, he generates faith and annuls the prohibition.
2
The twenty-first chapter of T.192 (the Chinese translation of the Buddhacarita traditionally attributed to Tan Wuchen 曇無讖) and the counterpart in the thirteenth-century Tibetan translation (from Sanskrit)73
“Standing on the terrace, Ajātaśatru, on seeing the chief of elephants tamed by the Lord, was amazed, filled with joy, and gained extreme faith in the Buddha.”74
Subcycle Three
The twenty-fifthchapter of T.21175
71 For the Sanskrit version, see Speyer (1902-1909: i. 88-92); translated into French in Feer (1979
[1891]: 72-76). The Tibetan translation is basically the same as the Sanskrit (see Derge 343, mdo sde, am 46b2-49a4; sTog 252, mdo sde, sha 70b4-73b7). In the Chinese translation of the Avś (T.200.210a 23f.) the story appears as the fifteenth rather than sixteenth chapter (see above n.46), the content of which largely agrees with but still differs from the Sanskrit and the Tibetan. For an English translation of the Sanskrit and the Chinese versions, see Appendix II.1.
72 Feer (1879: 304; 1979 [1891]: xxvi) gives the title Dharmabuddhin-pa, whereas Filliozat (1941: 14)
gives Dharmabuddhan-pa. According to Speyer’s edition (1902-1909: i. 91.16), the story mentions a king (one of the Buddha’s past existences) named Dharmabuddhi. The story is summarized in Feer (1979 [1891]: 75-76) and in Mitra (1882: 301, XX “Story of Ajātaśatru’s conversion”). On the
correspondence of this story with the sixteenth chapter of the Sanskrit and Tibetan Avś, see Feer (1879: 304); Speyer (1902-1909: ii. xxii).
73 According to Sengyou’s catalogue (T.2154.12a25), the translator of the Fu-suoxing-zan in five
fascicles (T.192) is Baoyun, not Tan Wuchen (EMC: *dəm/dam-muə-tʂʰimʰ; Skt. *Dharmakṣema [I can not adopt the reconstruction Dharmarddhin/-vṛddhin proposed in Willemen 2009: xv]). According to Willemen (ibid.: xiv), Sengyou’s ascription is supported by the study of Ōminami (2002) to which I have no access. In T.192, the episode of Ajātaśatru’s conversion is found at 40c19-41b3. There can be no doubt about the Indic origin of this Chinese episode, given its close agreement with the Tibetan translation (Derge Tanjur 4156, skyes rabs, ge76a7-78a1; Golden Tanjur 3658, skyes rabs, nge 108a5- 110b2) which was made from Sanskrit probably in the late thirteenth century (Jackson 1997: 54). The Tibetan is translated in Johnston (1998 [1936]: iii. 63). For more details, see Appendix II.2.
74 Derge 4156, ge 77b6; Golden 3658, nge 110a5-6: dad pa la gnas ma skyes dgra ni thub pa yis [G:
yi]| | glang chen dbang po de ni brtul [G: btul] ba mthong nas ni | | ya mtshan gyur zhing [G: cing] de nas dga’ ba skyes pa ste | | sang rgyas la ni mchog tu dad pa byas pa’o | As Johnston (1998 [1936]: iii. 63 n.2) notices, the Tibetan read prasāda (dad pa “faith”) at the beginning of this sentence for prāsāda “palace”.
75 According to Brough (1962: 38), T.211, translated between 290 and 306 CE, is a selection of verses
3
Ajātaśatru is amazed by the Buddha’s magic power in subjugating five hundred drunken elephants released by Devadatta and himself and therefore gains faith in the Buddha. An elaborate parallel to the above-mentioned story in T. 192
4
One part of the Bhai+ajyavastu, “Section on Medicine”, of the MSV (Tibetan and Chinese translations, both from Sanskrit)76
Ajātaśatru assists Devadatta in attacking the Buddha, who then leaves Rājagṛha. Later when the neighbouring kings campaign against Ajātaśatru and a plague breaks out in Magadha, Ajātaśatru has no choice but to invite the Buddha back to cure the plague. Convinced by the Buddha’s influence and supernatural power, Ajātaśatru gains faith in him.
The “conversion” of Ajātaśatru appears as a prelude to the Vaiśālī plague legend.
Stories of Ajātaśatru’s Repentance, His Future Rebirths and/or Eventual Pratyekabuddha-hood
1
Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Pāli Sāmaññaphala-sutta
A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s next birth in hell, subsequent release, and eventual attainment of paccekabuddha-hood
2
An untitled sūtra in the Chinese translation of the Ekottarikāgama (T.125 [38.11])
A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s next birth in hell, subsequent release, following continuous heavenly rebirths and eventual pratyekabuddha-hood
The contextualization of the prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s future rebirths within the Vaiśālī plague legend
3
The Asheshi-wang-wen-wuni-jing 阿闍世王問五逆經, “Sūtra of Ajātaśatru’s Inquiry into the Five Heinous Crimes” (T.508)77
A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s next birth in hell, subsequent release, following continuous heavenly rebirths and eventual pratyekabuddha-hood, parallel to that found in T.125 [38.11]
4
One part of the Pusa-benxing-jing 菩薩本行經, “Sūtra of Previous Deeds of the Bodhisattva” (T.155, Bodhisattvapūrvacarya?)
A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s next birth in hell and subsequent release
The contextualization of the prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s future rebirths within the Vaiśālī plague legend
Subcycle Four
The Ajātaśatrupit-drohāvadāna (AŚPA), “Story of Ajātaśatru’s Malice towards His
and is thus similar to a somewhat condensed Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā”; see also de Jong (1998: 390-1). The Ajātaśatru story in question is told in the twenty-fifth chapter on “Anger” (*Krodhavarga) of T.211 (596a5-b2). See a paraphrase in Beal (1878: 121-3); see also Lamotte (1944-1980: iv. 1773). For a full English translation, see Appendix II.3. The story has no parallel in the Pāli Dhammapada Commentary.
76 No Sanskrit has been preserved in this part of the Bhai+ajyavastu of the MSV. The Tibetan is found
at Derge Kanjur 1, ’dul ba, kha 13a6-14b3; sTog Kanjur 1, ’dul ba, ka 454a4-kha 3a4; the Chinese counterpart at T.1448.19c2f. For a translation and discussion of the Tibetan version of the story, see below Chapter Three.
77 Mizuno (1996 [1989]: 429) suggests that T.508 is one of the remnants of the lost Chinese translation
5 Father”, of the Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā (BAK), “Wish-Fulfilling Garland of Tales of the Bodhisattva” composed by the Kashmiri poet Kṣemendra in 1052 CE78
A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s eventual attainment of pratyekabuddha-hood.
Stories of Ajātaśatru’s Repentance, His Future Rebirths and/or Eventual Buddha-hood
1
The fifth and eleventh chapters of the *Ajātaśatrukauk-tyavinodan-sūtra (AjKV) (fragmentary Sanskrit version; complete Tibetan [Derge Kanjur 216, sTog Palace Kanjur 223] and Chinese translations [T.626, T.627])
Chapter Five: Ajātaśatru’s remorse for his patricide and his request for mental relief Second half of Chapter Eleven: A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s next birth in hell, subsequent
release, following heavenly and human rebirths, and eventual attainment of buddha-hood Ajātaśatru is saved not by the Buddha but by the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī.
2
The Asheshi-wang-shoujue-jing阿闍世王授決經, “Sūtra of the Prophecy [of Future Buddha-hood] of Ajātaśatru” (T.509)
A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s eventual buddha-hood, parallel to that found in the AjKV No mention of his patricide or repentance thereof
Subcycle Five
3
The tenth chapter of the Shouhu-guojiezhu-tuoluoni-jing守護國界主陀羅尼經, “Dhāraṇī-sūtra of Protecting the Ruler of the Realm” (T.997)
The “conversion” of Ajātaśatru: Terrified by the infernal torment manifested by the Buddha, Ajātaśatru expresses his repentance for the patricide to the Buddha and takes refuge in him. A prophecy of Ajātaśatru’s next birth in hell, subsequent release, following rebirth in the Tuṣita
Heaven where he will receive from Maitreya Bodhisattva a prophecy of future buddha-hood.
78 The editio princeps of this story is the bilingual version (Sanskrit text and Tibetan translation) from
1664-65 CE originally published by Das and Vidyābhūṣaṇa (1888-1918: i. 1070-1087). The Sanskrit text was later reproduced in Vaidya (1959: 280-284). See also textcritical remarks in de Jong (1979: 27-